Notes
223 Introduction 1. “Seis frases para la historia,” El Universal, September 16, 1942. 2. Diego Arenas Guzmán, “La guerra ha traído la paz a México,” El Universal, September 16, 1942. 3. See “Brillantemente fue conmemorado el XXXV aniversario de la Revolución,” El Nacional, November 22, 1945; “El P.R.M. hace un llamado,” El Nacional, November 20, 1945; and other statements and accounts cited in chapter 6. 4. For an official review of the impact of the war on the Mexican economy, see Mexico, Secretaría de la Economía Nacional, El desarrollo de la economía nacional. The economic effects of the war are also discussed in Niblo, The Impact of War; and in Cline, The United States and Mexico, 284–91. 5. The impact of inflation on real wages during the war years was widely noted at the time and is documented in Bortz, Industrial Wages in Mexico City. The agreement with the United States establishing the bracero program, introduced in 1942, remained in effect until 1964. 6. On the development of the intelligence services, see especially Aguayo, La charola; and Navarro, Political Intelligence, chap. 4. On conscription, see Rath, “‘Que el cielo,’” which judges the program to have been a failure. The connection between the war and the 1945–1946 National Campaign Against Illiteracy is discussed in chapter 6 and in Rankin, ¡México, la patria!, 241–45. 7. For an analysis of the bases of Cárdenas’s power, focusing on his coalition-building and political management skills, see Hernández Chávez, La mecánica cardenista. For an assessment of the radicalism and (and, in his view, limited) effectiveness of cardenista policies, see Knight, “Cardenismo.” 8. On the confrontational relationship between Cárdenas and the country’s top industrialists, see Saragoza, The Monterrey Elite, chap. 8. On education policy, see Lerner, La notes 22 4 n o t e s t o p a g e s 5– 8 educación socialista. Article 3 of the Mexican Constitution, as amended in 1934, mandated the provision of “socialist education.” The precise meaning of socialist in this context was subject to debate, but it certainly meant that instruction should be secular . Under Ávila Camacho, Article 3 was eventually revised to eliminate the stipulation that education be “socialist.” The text introduced in 1945 called for education to be “democratic,” “national,” “completely removed from any religious doctrine,” and “based on the results of scientific progress.” See Mexico, Secretaría de Gobernación, Seis años de actividad nacional, 104–5. 9. See Schuler, Mexico Between Hitler and Roosevelt. 10. On the evolution of and reforms to the PRM under Ávila Camacho, see especially Garrido, El partido de la Revolución institucionalizada , chap. 6. On the rise of the middle classes within the ruling party and the establishment of the “popular sector,” see Bertaccini, El regimen priísta. 11. Recent studies that have illustrated some of the weaknesses of the regime through at least the 1940s include Navarro, Political Intelligence; Newcomer, Reconciling Modernity; Smith, Pistoleros and Popular Movements; and Padilla, Rural Resistance in the Land of Zapata. See the following notes for further discussion. 12. Benjamin, “The Leviathan on the Zócalo,” 209. 13. Niblo, Mexico in the 1940s, xvii. 14. For examples of early works that tended to gloss over the war years and to focus more on the period of the “Mexican miracle,” see Cline, Mexico, Revolution to Evolution; and Brandenburg, The Making of Modern Mexico. In his 1962 book and in The United States and Mexico, Cline did acknowledge the economic and political impact of the war, but he focused more on “the Institutional Revolution’s increasingly fruitful years” under Alemán and his successors (Revolution to Evolution, 34). Brandenburg lumped the war years into a “Cárdenas and Ávila Camacho Epoch,” thereby overlooking to some extent the important changes under way as a result of the war during the early 1940s. 15. Knight, “The Rise and Fall of Cardenismo.” Other works that explored the political transition under way in the early 1940s in some depth include Medina, Del cardenismo al avilacamachismo; Torres, México en la Segunda Guerra Mundial; and Medina, Civilismo y modernización del autoritarianismo . Though these Colegio de México volumes recognized the importance of the period and of the role played by Ávila Camacho in the political transformation of the early 1940s, the structure of the series was such that international conditions and foreign relations on the one...
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