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C H A P T E R 4 The Critique of China and Defense of Native Culture Atsutane’s Stance on Cultural Borrowing Atsutane’s overall objective in his research was to rediscover what was originally Japanese and to rid Japanese culture of all foreign influences so that native culture could be revalued and understood as superior to other cultures. However, in pursuing this objective he had a habit of appropriating his so-called original and native Japanese ideas from foreign cultures. For example, his version of jindai moji, or the native Japanese writing system , which he claimed was developed in Japan’s mythological Age of the Kami long before contact with the continental cultures, was criticized by important people1 within his own kokugaku movement for being an imitation of hangul, writing from the Korean peninsula. What is most paradoxical is that Atsutane habitually appropriated ideas from the very cultures with which he was competing and of which he was critical. The first glaring example from Senkyò ibun is the very word sanjin, which is one Chinese character radical short of being the same character combination that makes up the Chinese word for Daoist immortal. The imitation is obvious and intentional, and there is no attempt to disguise it, although we will see later how Torakichi clarified the difference between the two beings. This chapter will detail many more appropriations of Chinese culture. There are also many examples in Senkyò ibun of Atsutane’s appropriations from Buddhism, which is particularly startling in light of his often-expressed negative opinions about that religion. Specific examples of his debt to Buddhism will be given in the following chapter. In addition , as noted earlier, it is clear from reading Atsutane’s Outer Chapters of Our Doctrine that he had been able to obtain writings on Christianity translated into Chinese. It has been further asserted that in Atsutane’s new theological system, Ame no minaka nushi simply replaced the Christian God the Father, with two other creator kami filling the slots for the Son 104 China and Native Culture and the Holy Spirit to fill out the trinity of creation for the Shinto Zòka no sanshin.2 Furthermore, Atsutane’s new heaven- and hell-like afterworlds, with Òkuninushi sitting in judgment, have also been evaluated as results of crypto-Christian influence. Atsutane, of course, would claim that the influence went the opposite way, but his own words admit that he read translations from Dutch books and recognized a similarity and connection between Christianity and his own Ancient Way. Far to the west of India there are countless countries, and even in all those countries, there is a tradition which says the gods of heaven created everything , starting with heaven and earth, and ending with human beings. This can be clearly seen when you look at documents from Holland. Anyway , the fact is that all the countries of the world speak in unison of a tradition of gods who live in heaven and create all things. While we doubt the verity of their stories, we know that they contain a small connection to our divine country’s traditions.3 Much more about Atsutane’s secular appropriations from the West will be explained in detail in chapter 6. Atsutane was learned in various fields of scholarship. In his many works he proudly displayed his knowledge of theories and teachings originating in other cultures. He, of course, given his nativist agenda, was highly critical of those Japanese who were supporters of foreign theories and propagators of foreign teachings. He was quick to point out foreign “corruption,” even in revered texts praised by other nativists. For example, in the Nihongi we find one of the earliest collections of stories relating to the creation and history of Japan. Yet this history differs from the Kojiki in that it also records variant versions, in contrast to the Kojiki’s single story line. The first creation story from the Nihongi describes an undifferentiated egglike substance dividing into distinct parts. Atsutane claims that this story was not originally Japanese and is clear evidence of Chinese corruption that affects this whole work. In Essence of the Ancient Way (Kodò taii) he writes: At this point in time, because of the Chinese language embellishments of the Nihongi, we have lost the facts of the ancient past; moreover, this has given birth to the mistakes of later generations. If I were to mention one or two, first, there is the beginning of the volume...

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