Japanese Communication: Language and Thought in Context

9 Japanese Communication Strategies: Collaboration toward Persuasion

133 9 Japanese Communication Strategies: Collaboration toward Persuasion Six different strategies show how the Japanese work toward collaboration in communication. Negotiating with someone across cultures raises a question as to the effectiveness of one’s strategies. It has been suggested that Japanese and American negotiating styles differ, and it is worth dicussing these differences. Conversation cannot take place without listener participation. Listener behavior in Japanese casual conversation contrasts with that in American conversation. A nonverbal sign pervasive in Japanese talk, that is, head movement, is one example of the contrast. Head movement performs what I call an “interactional dance.” Both listener response and head movement in Japanese conversation illustrate the close coordination between participants. Americans and Japanese collaborate, but certain strategies found in Japanese are significantly absent in English. Critics of nihonjinron ‘discussions of the Japanese’ may find the characterization of these differences disturbing, but empirically supported differences in communication strategies do exist, and I find it important to focus on these phenomena. Another characteristic strategy observed in Japanese communication is silence. Although silence is communicative in all cultures , the Japanese are said to tolerate silence more readily than Americans. Silence in Japan functions in several different, even opposing, ways. Japanese speakers place importance on cooperation and collaboration in face-to-face encounters, but Japanese people find them- 134 Japanese Language in Context selves in situations of conflict as well. Conflicts, in fact, occur more pervasively than usually presumed. The Japanese work to avoid the occurrence of emotionally upsetting situations in a number of ways. Considering the increase in global communication—and in the number of potential conflicts between Japan and other cultures and nations—an understanding of how the Japanese deal with conflict has practical importance. The last part of this chapter shifts its focus to another communication strategy, rhetorical structures. Beyond the use of western rhetoric, certain Japanese genres follow the principle of ki-shoo-tenketsu , which once again demonstrates the Japanese preference for a rhetoric of commentation. Negotiating and Persuading Japanese and American Business Negotiation Practices According to John L. Graham and Yoshihiro Sano (1984, 1986), Japanese and Americans use different rhetorical strategies and show different behavioral patterns in a typical business negotiation. Graham and Sano call American negotiation “the John Wayne style” (1984, 8–9). An American negotiator believes that he can handle any negotiation situation alone, just like the independent and selfrealizing lone gunman in the western myth. The negotiator insists on being called by given name (emphasizing equality), even when this may make the Japanese negotiator uncomfortable. And the American negotiator—secure in the ability to deal with any situation singlehandedly—has no need to “check with the home office” unlike the Japanese counterpart. The American wants to “get to the point” as quickly and precisely as possible, expects the other party to “lay his cards on the table,” expects the other party to speak up, is not likely to take no for an answer, and so on. The John Wayne behavioral paradigm often works well between Americans. But with a Japanese negotiating team, its effectiveness is questionable, since it may lead to disengaged interaction. Once the negotiation process starts, additional problems arise because the importance placed on the various steps of the negotiation process differ. Graham and Sano (1986, 59) offer a list (a simplified version follows) summarizing the behavior of Japanese and American business negotiators at four stages during negotiation. Japanese Communication Strategies 135 The differences are striking. Japanese take much more time in nontask sounding and exchanging personal information, which is used to judge the trustworthiness of the negotiators. While Americans spend more time and effort in attempting to persuade the Japanese negotiators by using aggressive tactics and arguing for their declared position, the Japanese tend to offer only a wild ballpark figure, “listen,” and then ask questions during the persuasion stage. For Americans, reaching a final agreement step-by-step (linear progression ) is more comfortable, while for the Japanese, a holistic approach is preferable. Japanese and American negotiators may find themselves trapped in the middle of negotiations if they both behave in accordance with their normal rhetorical and behavioral patterns. Are You Ready to Argue? Part of the reason Japanese and American negotiators are sometimes unable to engage in satisfying and fruitful interaction lies in the fact that Japanese people tend to dislike arguing unless the situation is one in which arguing is encouraged or expected. Alicia M...