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251 C H A P T E R 1 4 Demographic Change in the Early Spanish Philippines I n general terms, demographic trends following European contact in both Southeast Asia and the Americas followed a similar trajectory, with indigenous peoples in both regions experiencing a significant decline followed by a slow recovery. In Southeast Asia the decline does not appear to have been as great, but it extended through the seventeenth century, whereas by then native populations in some parts of the Americas had begun to recover.1 In Spanish America, however, population increase was slow and growth did not reach the spectacular rates that characterized demographic recovery in Southeast Asia from the eighteenth century.2 Hence, despite the Philippines’ being subject to the same colonial power as Spanish America, broad demographic trends in the Philippines showed greater similarities to those in Southeast Asia than to those in the Americas. The initial impact of conquest and the types of transformations the Spanish sought to bring to native societies in both regions were similar, but what made the Philippines different from Spanish America was the geographical location of the islands, their physical configuration, and the character of the natural resources and societies to be found there. These factors were also significant in explaining why, although the Philippines may have followed a similar demographic trajectory to other Southeast Asian societies, there were differences in the relative importance of factors underlying population trends in these two regions. Low Population Densities in Pre-Spanish Times One necessary aim of this study was to refine estimates for the population of the Philippines at the time of Spanish arrival. Through an examination of the evidence for each region in the Visayas and Luzon, it has been suggested that in 1565 the population of these islands together was about 1.43 million, with nearly 73 percent being in Luzon. To this number might be added a further 5 to 10 percent to take account of the inhabitants of smaller islands and others who escaped official attention. These figures do not include Mindanao and other islands in the southern archipelago. This would suggest a maximum population of about 1.57 million at the time the Spanish arrived. While this estimate may appear precise, given the fragmentary nature of the evidence on which it is based and the need to make many assumptions about the 252 Part V Conclusion influence of epidemics and political, economic, and social changes that were associated with colonial rule, it must be regarded as having a margin of error. While the estimate of 1.57 million is higher than suggested in other studies, it confirms earlier findings that the population density of the Philippines was low.3 Densities appear to have been slightly higher in Luzon than in the Visayas, but they still averaged less than ten persons per square kilometer; only around Manila and in Ilocos did densities exceed twenty persons per square kilometer.4 Anthony Reid had argued that the most significant factor holding back population growth in Southeast Asia through the eighteenth century was interpolity warfare . It is recognized that its demographic impact derived not so much from the numbers killed in conflict, since the aim was to capture sources of labor, but from the disruption it caused to subsistence activities and its impact on fertility through the prolonged or permanent separation of spouses, encouraging birth control, and inducing unconscious stressed-related amenorrhea.5 Certainly interpolity conflict was common throughout much of the Visayas and Luzon in pre-Spanish times. Ilocos appears to have been the exception, and its absence could have contributed to higher population densities there. Research in other regions of Southeast Asia suggests other factors that may have been more significant in explaining low population densities. Peter Boomgaard has stressed the importance of marriage practices and birth control in explaining low fertility in the Indonesian archipelago,6 while David Henley has collected evidence from Sulawesi and elsewhere to suggest that lower birth rates prevailed in slaveowning societies.7 The research here supports the view that fertility was a significant factor in maintaining low population densities in the Philippines, particularly in the Visayas, where small families were preferred and abortion and infanticide were widely practiced. Here marriages were also delayed by high bridewealth, and the widespread use of penis inserts may have affected fecundity. Similar practices were found among groups that inhabited the interior highlands of Luzon, but they were not common in Tagalog society, where large families were...

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