Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis

Chapter Six. Morality and Ethics

Chapter Six Morality and Ethics Buddhism, like any other Indian religion, does not divorce knowledge from conduct, theory from practice. Philosophy is meaningful only as it provides an understanding of reality on which to regulate one's life. Understanding man and nature is not an end in itself; it is only a means to an end. The ultimate goal of knowledge or insight (panna) is freedom (vimutti). Why is man searching for freedom? The American philosopher John Dewey began his work The Quest for Certainty with the remark: Man who lives in a world of hazards is compelled to seek for security. He has sought to attain it in two ways. One of them began with an attempt to propitiate the powers which environ him and determine his destiny. It expressed itself in supplication, sacrifice, ceremonial rite and magical cult. In time these crude methods were largely displaced. The sacrifice of a contrite heart was esteemed more pleasing than that of bulls and oxen; the inner attitude of reverence and devotion more desirable than external ceremonies. If man could not conquer destiny he could willingly ally himself with it; putting his will, even in sore affliction, on the side of the powers which dispense fortune, he could escape defeat and might triumph in the midst of destruction. 1 These remarks seem to be a good starting point for a discussion of ethics and morality in early Buddhism. In his Discourse on The Noble Quest (Ariyapariyesana-sutta),2 the Buddha points out that his quest or search, as was the case with the Upani~adic sages, was for a way to overcome what Dewey calls the "world of hazards." The world of hazards for the Buddha as well as the Upani~adic sages was that world tormented by birth, decay, and death. As pointed out in chapter 3, according to the natural causal law, that which arises conditioned by causes is sure to pass away when the causes disintegrate . There is nothing that is seen to be permanent and eternal. Hence, for a being who is born, death is a certainty. The goal of the religious life is therefore the attainment offreedom from birth (jati) , and thus avoidance of decay and death. The paean ofjoy uttered by the Buddha after his attainment of enlightenment expresses this in very vivid terms: For countless births did I wander in this existence looking for the house-builder [i.e., the cause of rebirth1but without success; for unsatisfactory are repeated births. 0 housebuilder ! You have now been discovered. You shall never build this house again. All your rafters are broken and the ridge-pole shattered. The mind has reached the state of freedom from dispositions and has seen the end of craving. (Anekajatisalrzsiiral]1 sandhiivissalJl anibbisal]1, gahakiirakal]1 gavesanto dukkhii jiiti punappunalrz. Gahakiiraka diuho' si puna gehal]1 na kahasi, sabba te phasukii bhaggiigahakl~talJl ViSat1khitattl visatikhiiragatalJl cittal]1 tarhiinal]1 khayam ajjhagii.)3 The two ways ofovercoming the world ofhazards and attaining security referred to by Dewey closely resemble the two ways adopted in Brahmanism and Buddhism. Giving up the practice ofpropitiation of the powers that environ man, using various forms of worship such as supplication, sacrifice, ceremonial rite, and magical cult as accepted in the Brahmanical religion, Buddhism emphasized the need for self-culture or moral rectitude to gain freedom from the trammels ofexistence. The Buddha states it thus: I lay no wood, brahman, for fires on altars, only within burneth the fire I kindle. With this fire incessantly burning, and with the self ever restrained, I live the noble and higher life.4 These remarks show the kind ofchange brought about by Buddhism in the religious life ofthe Indians. It does not mean that such morality was not known to the pre-Buddhist religions of India. It only emMORALITY AND ETHICS 57 phasizes the extent to which the Brahmanical religion had deteriorated during the Buddha's day. In fact, the Buddha speaks of the moral standing ofthe brahman priests who lived before the sacrificial ritual was elaborated.5 A disciple of the Buddha who has attained freedom from suffering is called "one who has done what has to be done" (katakarat ;liyo). But to reach this goal the disciple has to do all that is to be done by gradual and ordered stages. Early Buddhism emphasizes the fact that a beginner is not in a position to reach the...