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The interaction of the color of the garments with the subjects and arrangement of the embroidery on the surface embodies the “inner” aspects of the costumes, not the minute details found in the type of stitch or the species of flower. The impact of the whole conveys the intent of the costume. The contents and placement of the surface designs follow predetermined patterns for each garment and role, within the flexibility allowed by the traditions. The subjects are drawn from the Chinese language of symbols, although as theatre and as an art form, the designs on traditional Jingju costumes move beyond the heritage of the court. Embroidery in Chinese History Alongwiththeprocessesoftextileproduction,theChinese developed several methods for creating designs on the surface of the fabrics. In the Warring States period (476 bc– 221 bc), looms for weaving damask-patterned fabrics were first developed and by the Tang dynasty (618–907), they were quite advanced. In actuality, the Jacquard loom for weaving brocades, patented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804 in France, was based on the Chinese weaving technology.1 As well as brocades, tapestry weaving was also highly advanced in the Tang dynasty. In tapestry weaving, different colored weft threads, rather than passing the width of the loom, are woven back and forth only in the area required to create the design. The fabric produced from this technique was called kesi (carved or cut silk) because it appeared that the threads have been cut.2 Along with woven fabrication , painting processes such as block printing, resist dyeing, and gilding developed as textile-enhancing techniques. Embroidery was a fourth technique developed for textile embellishment. Silk threads are particularly conducive to creating excellent embroidery, and the art of stitched designs developed in China along with the evolution of the use of silk fabrics.3 Virtually all of the textile cultural artifacts of the early dynasties were embroidered .4 Among the earliest evidences of embroidery are imprints in the patina of two bronzes of the Shang dynasty (1558–1051 bc). The bronzes were wrapped in fabric,andas thefabricdeteriorated, it madean impression clear enough to distinguish the threads and chain stitch of the embroidery. Tomb textiles from the Han dynasty (206 bc–220 ad) contain several embroidery stitches that are still used, including the stem stitch and the knot stitch.5 The satin stitch flourished during the Tang dynasty, as well as the process of couching, which at this time used threads wrapped in gold metal.6 ThefiberartsthrivedintheSongdynasty(960–1279), as variations of the satin stitch emerged and innovative technology,includingmetalneedles,improvedthequalTheAestheticsandMeanings oftheEmbroideredImagery I the a esthetics a nd mea nings of the embroider ed Im agery @ 93 ity of needlework. Another significant development of the Song era was the merging of embroidery designs with the art of painting, for embroiderers in search of innovative subject matter began stitching duplicates of famous paintings.7 The techniques of satin stitching in these examples of purely ornamental embroidery “became an art form in its own right, distinguished from embroidery for more practical uses,” adding a new level to artistry in thread.8 The Yuan rulers (1279–1368) were particularly interested in the use of gold threads in embroidery .9 During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), embroidery production developed on a larger scale with a wider range of colors. Considered a fine art, embroiderers were recognized as honored professionals.10 Embroidered textiles have long been highly valued in China, not only for dress, but also for interior decorations, court rituals, and treasured gifts. Initially, theatre costumes were painted because the troupes were not allowed to use quality fabrics or techniques, there being a political need to distinguish between performance and real life. In the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), as the economy flourished, the art of embroidery became more widespread, and many young girls, even peasants, learned how to make the stitches. As embroidery became more common, it was more feasible for embroidery to be used on costumes.11 In the Qing dynasty, when traditional Jingju formed, most imperial formal and informal items of clothing were made from brocade, tapestry, or embroidered fabrics . Traditional Jingju costumes did not absorb all of these techniques because brocades and tapestries were costly and more exclusive. Embroidery required the least technology, and as a result, the costumes of traditional Jingju still use embroidery almost exclusively for multicolored effects. Occasional examples of painted costumes do occur, however (Fig. 5.1). Extant examples of traditional Jingju costumes from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries show...

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