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313 Notes Prologue 1. The September 18th Incident, known in the West as the Mukden Incident , refers to the bombing of a section of the Japanese South Manchuria Railway at Liutiao hu, Shenyang, in 1931. The bombing was planned by the Japanese  \\  ‚   _   full-scale invasion of the Three Eastern Provinces (Northeast China or Manchuria ). Though each of the three names for the region has political implications , for convenience I will use “Manchuria” in this book except when certain contexts require another name for clarity. 2. My gratitude goes to Chengzhi (Kicengge) and Peter A. Michalove for helping me with Manchu inscriptions. 3. The name of this regime is often romanized in three ways: “Manchukuo ” in many Western publications, “Manzhouguo” in pinyin, and “Manchoukuo ” in the official English-language publications from the regime. In a statement titled “Regarding Names” in Bulletin Extra (The Department of Foreign Affairs, Manchoukuo Government, Oct. 14, 1932, Information Bulletin, No. 1–50, September 1932–April 15, 1933, p. 113), the Manchoukuo government claimed that the correct English name of their state was “Manchoukuo or The State of Manchuria,” not “Manchukuo.” To avoid confusion, this book adopts the regime’s own spelling. 4. Carl June 1988 in Tonkin 1992, 118. Introduction 1. The Zhuang and Manzu were the only two non-Han groups whose population exceeded 10 million in the last national census in 2000. The population of the Zhuang was about 16 million by 2000 and was about 17 million by 2009 according to “Zhongguo de minzu zhengce yu ge minzu gongtong fanrong fazhan ” (The ethnic policies and the common prosperity and development of all the ethnic groups in the People’s Republic of China) issued by the State Council (Guowu yuan). Manzu’s population in 2000 was close to 10.7 million. Most publications on Qing history and the Manchus use the English term “Manchus” to refer to both the community of Jurchen tribal people who were renamed 314 | Notes to Pages 1–7 “Manju” in 1635 and to the Manzu, one of the minority groups officially recognized by the PRC. I will use “Manzu” to refer to the contemporary ethnic community whose core members are the offspring of the Manchus from the Qing but whose other members include descendants of non-Manchu origin. Please see Edward Rhoads’ explanation about this complicated terminology and the “vexing” relationship among the banner people, Manchus, and Manzu in his 2000 book (8). 2. The Eight-Banner system is usually defined as a military-social-economic system that privileged banner people over civilians during the Qing dynasty . See pp. 12–13 of the introduction. 3. Representative publications include Kürti 2001; Baud and Schendel 1997; Sahlins 1989; Nugent and Asiwaju 1996; Asiwaju 1983; Smith, Law, and Wilson 1998; Truett and Young 2004; Brooks 2001; and Adelman and Aron 1999. The terms “frontier” and “borderland” are often used interchangeably in English publications, although they are distinctly different in specialized studies of borderlands of the United States. The frontier has been a popular subject of U.S. history, regarded—from Frederick Jackson Turner’s theory—as an essential element in the pioneering and expansionist past of North America, while in Britain the term often negatively connotes remote and rural areas. Recently the term “borderland” has been chosen over “frontier” in historical studies to avoid the chauvinism conveyed by Turner’s definition of frontiers as “meeting points between savagery and civilization,” or as the leading edge of the United States into so-called “empty land” (Adelman and Aron 1999). In the field of Chinese history, “borderland” and “frontier” are often used interchangeably . For more introductory information on scholarship in borderland studies in Europe, the United States, and Africa, see Shao 2009b. 4. Winichakul 1994; Crossley, Siu, and Sutton 2006; Perdue 2005; Millward 1998; Tagliacozzo 2005; Bulag 2002; and Liu Xiaoyuan 2004, among others. 5. While Western scholars have been negating nationalism and rescuing history from nation during the past two decades, in East Asian countries, research on the history and ethnography of disputed borders or border regions still makes a considerable impact on current diplomatic relations and public opinion. For more information on the historiographical trends in the field of borderland studies in the PRC, see Zhao Yuntian 2000. 6. Anderson defined a nation as “an imagined political community—and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (1991, 6). 7. For a brief etymology of “ethnicity,” see Hutchinson and Smith 1996, 4–5. 8. Milton Yinger listed the three ingredients that...

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