173 NOTES TO PAGES 000–000 Notes Introduction 1. The terms “third-wave democracies” and “young democracies” refer to a group of countries that underwent successful democratic transitions during the widespread international push toward democracy, called the “third wave of democratization” (Huntington 1991), that occurred in the late twentieth century. In contrast to the longestablished “old democracies” of the West, these countries are new but successfully consolidated democracies, in regions such as southern Europe, Latin America, eastern Asia, Southeast Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. 2. Analyzing the transitions from authoritarian rule in southern Europe, Schmitter (1986, 5) concludes that the “external factors tended to play an indirect and usually marginal role” in democratization. However, his findings tend to clash with some obvious facts surrounding the transitions that have occurred in Central and Eastern Europe. After the rapid political transitions in Eastern Europe, followed by the collapse of the Soviet Union, Schmitter (1996, 27) has admitted that “perhaps it is time to reconsider the impact of the international context upon regime change.” 3. For more about democratic transformations in CEE states, see Crawford and Lijphart 1995; Ekiert 2003; Kopstein and Reilly 2000; Pridham et al. 1997; Rose and Haerpfer 1995; and Whitehead 1996. 4. Since 2000 there have been four mass mobilizations in the postcommunist region, including the “Bulldozer Revolution” in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (in former Serbia and Montenegro) in 2000, the “Rose Revolution” in Georgia in 2003, the “Orange Revolution” in Ukraine in 2004, and the “Tulip Revolution” in Kyrgyzstan in 2005. The common term for these events is “Color Revolutions,” and these events were characterized by massive street protests that followed disputed elections and led to the resignation or overthrow of political authorities considered to be authoritarian and the rise of new power elites who favored democracy. For more about revolutions in the postcommunist region, see Fairbanks 2004; Karatnycky 2005; Thompson 2004; and special issues on the Orange Revolution in Problems of Post-Communism, March– April 2005, and in the Journal of Democracy, April 2005. Outside Europe there was the so-called “Cedar Revolution” in Lebanon. 5. Democracy is defined here and elsewhere as a form of government with: (1) regular elections that are free, fair, and competitive and that put in office public officials taking responsibility on behalf of the citizens; (2) authorities accountable to the citizens; (3) rule of law; and (4) civil liberties and political rights guaranteed by law. The most common mechanism that fosters accountability is elections (Schumpeter 1947). However, O’Donnell et al. (2004, 32) and Rose-Ackerman (2007) see civil 173 174 NOTES TO PAGES xv–xvi society as providing mechanisms of accountability as well. Democratic consolidation, however, is defined as a process of building a democracy following the collapse of an authoritarian regime and continuing to stabilize the democratic regime so that it survives. Scholars tend to consider democratic consolidation as a process by which the rules, institutions, and constraints of democracy come to constitute “the only game in town,” the one legitimate framework for seeking and exercising political power (Diamond 1997, xviii; Linz and Stepan 1996; Przeworski 1991, 26). 6. The concept of civil society is incorporated in the definition of liberal democracy with which scholars prefer to work. The concept of liberal democracy devotes more attention to human rights secured through constitutional, limited government, the rule of law, and freedom of speech, press, organization, and association than does that of electoral democracy (Bunce and Wolchik 2006; Diamond 1999; Pateman 1970; Tilly 2007). In Dahl’s (1971, 1989) understanding, what makes countries truly democratic is the dependence of officials’ decisions upon the expressions of preferences by the citizenry, as well as citizens’ chances to express their interests and values by means not only of parties and elections but also of the independent associations that individuals have the freedom to establish and join. In Dahl’s opinion, civil rights are essential for the exercise of political rights. Specifically, Dahl (1989, 233) argues that in a democracy, which he defines as “polyarchy,” citizens have an effectively enforced right to form and join autonomous associations, including political associations such as political parties and interest groups, that attempt to influence the government by competing in elections and by other peaceful means. 7. Detailed discussions about the role of civil society during transitions from authoritarianism to democracy in these regions are in Bernhard 1993; Diamond 1994, 1996; Diamond and Plattner 2001; Freres 1999; Ekiert 2003; Hadenius and Uggla 1998; Henderson...