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355 abacus/abacists, 40, 48, 59 Abélard, Pierre (1079–1142), 28, 30 Academia Secretorum Naturae, 101 Académie Royale des Sciences, 116, 118–19, 121, 148; on circulation in plants, 142–43, 184 academies, 47, 128; Bessarion’s, 50–51; experimentation flourishing in, 49, 128; Sforza’s, 58–59 Accademia dei Lincei, 70, 77, 101 Accademia del Cimento, 71, 109 Achenwall, Gottfried (1719–1772), 197, 208–9 action at a distance, 161, 230; Newton’s use of, 151–52, 245; rejection of, 154–55 Adelard of Bath (1070–1146), 28 Aeschylus, 23–24 Agricola, Georgius (1494–1550), 99, 103 Agricola, Rodolphus (1433–1485), 51, 76, 181 agriculture, 219; Agricultural Revolution, 177; artificial selection in, 236, 242; botany and, 175–79, 210; statistical analysis in, 213–14 Agrippa von Nettesheim, Cornelius (1486–1535), 99 Alberti, Leon Battista (1404–1472), 55–58 alchemy, 29, 38, 51, 126; claims to have made gold from lead, 93–94, 96; drawbacks of, 94–96; growing irrelevance of, 93–94, 96; influence of, 96, 104, 117; interest in, 49, 94, 151–53; natural and technical curiosities and, 107–8; opposition to, 97, 103, 110; physicians’ interest in, 97–98, 100; representations of, 94–95 Aldrovandi, Ulisse (1522–1605), 168–73 Alembert, Jean d’ (1717–1783), 158–59 Alexander of Hales (1185–1245), 32 Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), 21 Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) (965–1040), 29, 36–39, 57, 137 Al-Khwarizmi (800–865), 29, 40–41 Al-Kindi (801–866), 29, 36 Ampère, André (1775–1836), 119 Amsterdam, botanic garden in, 183, 189, 224 analogies, 2, 135, 160; anatomical, 137–42; Aristotle and, 14–15, 24, 134; in biology, 162–63; Descartes’s use of, 144–46, 148; figurative language vs., 136–37; models based on cybernetics, 162–63 anatomy, 101; analogies in, 137–42; botany and, 172–73; comparative, 233–34; of plants, 179, 181, 184, 192–93; in Plato’s Timaeus, 225 Anaxagoras, 19 Andriesse, C. D., 148 Annales school, 5 anti-Cartesians, 123–24 apothecaries, 169–70, 172 Aquinas, Thomas. See Thomas Aquinas Arab culture, 35, 107; influence of, 9–10, 29, 49, 103; mathematics and, 40–41, 50–51 Arabic, Greek writings translated from, 28–29 Archimedes (287–212 BC), 15, 46, 135; influence of, 48, 64; on mathematics, 39–40, 65–66; works of, 29, 52 Archytas, 18 Arianism, Newton’s belief in, 153 Aristotelianism, 126, 139, 180, 192; classification schemes in, 181–88; experience in, 104–5; at University of Leiden, 121–22 Aristotle (384–322 BC), 33, 199; analogies and, 14–15, 134, 136; on arithmetic, 39–40; deductive style of, 13, 22, 25–26, 87, 256; Descartes and, 27, 30–31, 87; on ethics, 22–23; on experience, 38, 118; first principles of, 13, 15–17; influence of, 22, 27, 36–37, 50–52, 64, 82–83; influence on medical education, 30, 42; Lyceum of, 21; mathematics’ influence on, 19–20; medieval period lacking direct link to, 27–28; metaphysics of, 13–14; methods of, 13, 22, 24–25, 110; on nature vs. technology, 134; observation in methods of, 15–17, 37, 46, 106; opposition to, 22, 31–32, 73; on physics, 55, 61, 63, 65; Plato and, 20–22, 35–36; reception´ INDEX 356 ¨ Index Aristotle (continued) history of, 25; taxonomy of, 181; translations of works of, 28–29, 52; works of, 13, 22–23, 25, 28, 36–37, 107 Arnold of Villanova (1240–1311), 42, 79 art, 56–58, 94, 188, 228; and crafts, 46, 53–54, 92, 96; history of, styles in, 6–8 artisan-engineers, 2, 47–49, 55–57, 126 artisans, 54, 127 Ashworth, William, 168 astrology, 29, 62, 94, 97–99, 105 astronomy, 17, 51, 69, 205; error analysis in, 206–7; as mathematics, 62, 80–81; Regiomontanus focusing on, 52–53. See also heliocentrism; Ptolemaic system atomism, 117, 152, 153, 161; mechanism and, 144; opposition to, 19, 77 atoms, 144–45, 163, 255 Auerbach, Stanley, 267 Augustine (354–430), 29, 33, 35–36, 39, 97, 105, 107–8 Averroës (Ibn Rushd) (1126–1198), 22, 42, 78; influence of, 30, 32, 50 Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980–1037), 22, 30, 42, 97; declining influence of, 49–50; translations of works of, 28–29 Babylonians, 17–18 Bacon, Francis (1561–1626), 102, 106–7, 109, 111, 116, 124, 136; on experiments, 46–47, 90, 93, 110; interest in occult, 2, 49, 93, 104; scientific reforms by, 112–14; on wonders of nature, 108, 117 Bacon, Nicholas, 111 Bacon, Roger...

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