The Borders of Integration: Polish Migrants in Germany and the United States, 1870-1924

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Founded in 1917, the Bank robotników (Workers’ Bank) in Bochum quickly grew to become the largest Polish ethnic bank in the ruhr region, with deposits of nearly eight million marks, seven branches located throughout the ruhr, and one each in holland, Toruń, and Katowice. Courtesy of the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University a Philadelphia & reading–owned mining complex in northeastern Pennsylvania at the turn of the twentieth century. Because of the terrain, many mines in the region were slope shaft mines, where underground coal lay closer to the surface. In the ruhr, most mines were deep shaft mines. Reprinted from Roberts, anthracite coal communities Pennsylvania miners working underground in Pittston, Pennsylvania. Lewis Hine photograph courtesy of the National Archives, College Park, Maryland Breaker boys working under strict supervision at the ewen Breaker of the Pennsylvania coal company in south Pittston, Pennsylvania. In the ruhr, such child labor was forbidden. Lewis Hine photograph courtesy of the National Archives, College Park, Maryland a Polish miner and his young son picking coal on a culm heap. Reprinted from Roberts, anthracite coal communities a typical mining settlement in northeastern Pennsylvania. Reprinted from Roberts, anthracite coal communities The Polish miners’ association in duryea, Pennsylvania, affiliated with the Polish national catholic church. Reprinted courtesy of the Polish National Catholic Church Fryderyk chopin girls’ choir in shenandoah, Pennsylvania, in the 1920s. Reprinted courtesy of the Polish National Catholic Church a sokoł (Falcon) association in annen (Witten) in the ruhr, c. 1917. Courtesy of Valentina Maria Stefanski The Kościuszko Guards of scranton, Pennsylvania, 1909. This association was named after the famous american revolutionary War hero and Polish patriot Thaddeus Kościuszko. The Polish-style uniforms combined with the carrying of an american flag (see far right) display an emerging Polish-american identity. Reprinted courtesy of the Polish National Catholic Church notable Polish community organizers in the ruhr included Jan Brejski (left) and ZZP miners’ section leader Francziszek mańkowski (below). Courtesy of Valentina Maria Stefanski Francziszek (Francis) hodur, first bishop of the Polish national catholic church, founded in scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1897. Reprinted courtesy of the Polish National Catholic Church The symbol of the Polish national catholic church (Pncc) with the dictum “Truth, Work, struggle.” Reprinted courtesy of the Polish National Catholic Church a 1918 opinion cartoon appearing in Coal Age magazine, emphasizing america’s ability to assimilate “slavic” miners. Though paternalistic in tone, the cartoon is notable for going against the rising wave of xenophobia in the United states that soon led to the immigration restriction measures of 1921 and 1924. Courtesy of the Anthracite Mining Museum, Scranton, Pennsylvania In the interwar period, trying to ensure that second- and third-generation Poles living in Germany maintained their ethnic identity was important. To this end, the ZPwn attempted to promote “Polishness” by creating a variety of publications aimed at the young such as Młody Polak w Niemczech (young Pole in Germany), a magazine for teenagers. Organizations such as the Związek młodzieży Polskiej (Union of Polish youth) were also established. Pictured is a blessing ceremony led by ZPwn president Father Bolesław domański. Courtesy of the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University (right) a 1923 steamship advertisement asks “czy jedziecie do domu w odwiedziny?” (are you going home for a visit?). return migration to Poland was frequent for Poles living in both the ruhr and northeastern Pennsylvania. after World War I, however, Poles in both communities were confronted with the question of whether to permanently return. From the 9 September 1923 issue of the republika Górnik Pensylvanski (Scranton) (below)“Jesteśmy Polakami” (We are Poles), the dominating theme of the 1936 ZPwn meeting held in Bochum, Germany. The main symbol of the ZPwn was the Rodło, a graphic representation of the course of the vistula river, along with the historic city of Kraków, that emphasized the ethnic roots of Poles in Germany. Courtesy of the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University The leadership of the ZPwn in 1937. seated center is the ZPwn president Father Bolesław domański. standing directly behind on the right is dr. Jan Kaczmarek, born in Bochum in 1895, general secretary of the ZPwn; and on the left...