Brazil and the United States: Convergence and Divergence

CHAPTER 1. The South American Empire

7 1 The South American Empire “Brazil is, next to ourselves, the great power on the American continent ,” remarked the U.S. minister to Brazil, James Watson Webb, in 1867.1 That observation, however, did not reflect the special historical relationship between the two giants of the Western Hemisphere. During the colonial period when Brazil was under Portugal’s control and the North American colonies were ruled by Britain, geographical distance and restrictive mercantilist policies limited contact between the people of the two regions. At the end of the eighteenth century, political differences were accentuated as the United States became a republic with a pronounced disdain for Old World diplomatic practice. U.S. leaders, however, took a pragmatic approach by establishing diplomatic relations with Portugal. More than three decades later in 1824, the Monroe administration demonstrated a similar realism and sought to gain short-term political and economic advantages by recognizing the newly independent Brazilian empire before Great Britain. The flurry of diplomatic activity in 1824 was brief and atypical. For the next half century both Brazil and the United States pursued expansive territorial policies, but they were so geographically remote from each other that their national interests rarely converged. The notable exception was trade. Despite initial U.S. optimism, commercial activity proved relatively modest. In fact, the balance of trade was invariably in Brazil’s favor, a trend that was increased by the growing U.S. demand for coffee, which made it the largest single market for Brazilian exports. In terms of overall commercial relations, however, Brazil was much closer to Europe than to the United States. During the nineteenth century the nation most admired by the Brazilian elite was Great Britain, which “ruled the waves” and was “the workshop of the world.” By comparison , the Brazilians regarded the United States as a much less significant power and cultural role model. In fact, diplomatic relations were often strained by the superior and overbearing attitude of U.S. diplomats serving in Brazil. The Americans might have likened the South American empire to their own coun- 8 chapter one try in terms of geographical size and economic potential, but they were not prepared to grant it equal status. Diplomatic Relations with the Portuguese Court When the United States became an independent nation in the 1780s, Brazil was still a colony of Portugal, a status that had lasted almost three centuries. After putting aside its moral misgivings about the aristocratic Old World’s diplomatic malpractices, the new republic’s government established formal relations with all the European powers, including Portugal. David Humphreys of Connecticut presented his credentials as U.S. minister resident at the Portuguese court in Lisbon on May 13, 1791. Humphreys served until 1797 and was replaced by South Carolina’s William Smith, who stayed at his post until September 1801. From the very beginning the two countries formed a correct but distant relationship because they were geographically so far apart and had little in common beyond modest commercial dealings. No U.S. minister was in Lisbon when a French invasion of Portugal prompted the unexpected departure of the Portuguese royal family and its court to Brazil in November 1807. In marked contrast to the detached attitude of the United States, the British government had maintained an attentive interest and long-standing influence in Portuguese political and commercial affairs. It was British diplomacy that characteristically played a vital role in persuading the Portuguese royal family to escape from imminent French imprisonment and leave Lisbon for Rio de Janeiro under the protection of the British navy. As a result of the move, Brazil became the administrative center of the Portuguese empire, and Portugal was spared the crisis of local political authority that initiated the violent movements for independence from colonial rule in the neighboring SpanishAmerican colonies. Moreover, the close historic ties and dependence between Portugal and Great Britain were highlighted when the prince regent, Dom João, arrived in Brazil and issued a decree in January 1808 for the first time opening Brazilian ports to trade with all friendly foreign nations. As Dom João intended, British merchants were the main beneficiaries of this action. Their hold over Brazilian trade became a position of economic preeminence when it was further strengthened by an 1810 commercial treaty between Britain and 9 The South American Empire Portugal that gave a tariff advantage of 15 percent on British goods imported into Brazil...