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125 Notes Introduction 1. These four banned approaches to teaching were (1) promoting the overthrow of the US government, (2) promoting resentment toward a race or class of people, (3) promoting classes designed primarily for pupils of a particular ethnic group, and (4) promoting ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals. This is discussed further in chapter 6. 2. MALDEF, “Tucson Students Triumph After Nearly 40 Years in Historic Desegregation Case,” available at http://www.maldef.org/news/releases/maldef_triumph_40_ years_desegregation_case/ (accessed July 4, 2013). 3. It is necessary to qualify the meaning of Mexican American. Both literally and geographically, it can be confusing and unclear. Idiomatically, it means US citizens of Mexican descent. Throughout Arizona’s history, various terms have been used to describe its citizens of Mexican ancestry. Terms such as Latin, Spanish-American, Hispano , Mejicano, and Mexican-American were widespread, yet each is either dated or indistinct. Many Mexican Americans in Arizona are descendants of old pioneer families who resided there for several generations. At first thought, then, it seems appropriate to use Mexican American instead of the aforementioned terms. The term Mexican American is designated for an American citizen who generally resides in the United States and whose parents (or, in some cases, only one parent) are of Mexican descent. Such a person may be a naturalized US citizen, a first-generation citizen, or one whose family roots extend as far back as the sixteenth century. 4. Since many Anglo Arizonans did not differentiate between Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants, especially with respect to discriminatory practices and policies , the term Arizonan-Mexican refers to all individuals of Mexican heritage who either work or live in Arizona, regardless of whether they are US citizens. 5. The term variant ethnic Mexican is also used by David Gregory Gútierrez in Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). I use it primarily when referring to people of Mexican heritage regardless of whether they are US citizens, legal residents, or undocumented. It is used occasionally instead of the aforementioned Arizonan-Mexican to refer more broadly to peoples of Mexican descent in the United States. I limit the use of Chicano to those ethnic Mexicans politically active during 126 • Notes to Pages 5–7 the Chicano Movement. Many appropriated the term Chicano to signify an acquired perspective of worth, dignity, and respect. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the term fostered a sense of solidarity, pride, and confidence among individuals of Mexican background. 6. Celestino Fernandez and Louis Holscher, “Chicano-Anglo Intermarriage in Arizona, 1960–1980: An Exploratory Study of Eight Counties,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science 5, no. 3 (1983): 294. 7. The 1990s and 2000s have produced a great deal of controversy concerning the proper pan-ethnic term to use to both describe and distinguish a considerable fraction of the US population. Since the mid-1990s, scholars have effectively narrowed the historical argument down to two catchall terms: Hispanic or Latino. Given that a popular and academic consensus has not been achieved, largely because of political, regional, and generational differences, both pan-ethnic labels are used interchangeably in this book, to denote the currency of each term in the Southwest broadly and in Arizona particularly. Of course, such blanket terms are used only when “Mexican American” or any of its derivatives are not. 8. Rodolfo F. Acuña, Occupied America: The Chicano’s Struggle for Liberation (San Francisco: Canfield Press, 1972), 333. 9. Julia Lobaco, “Women at War: Contributions of Hispanics Chronicled at Last,” Arizona Republic, December 19, 1986. 10. George Lespron, “Chicano History,” Arizona Daily Wildcat, March 17, 1970; and Renee Calderon, “Chicanos’ History Vital to Movement, Professor Claims,” Arizona Daily Wildcat, April 10, 1973. 11. Calderon, “Chicanos’ History Vital to Movement.” 12. Ibid. 13. MASO/MECHA Papers, MSS-150, box 3, folder 2, Chicano Research Collection , Department of Archives and Manuscripts, University Libraries, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. 14. Harwood P. Hinton, “Arizona Theses and Dissertations: A Preliminary Checklist ,” Arizona and the West: A Quarterly Journal of History 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1965): 239–64. 15. As a matter of interest, some argue that what also distinguishes Arizona agency from other state activism is that many Mexican American student leaders, especially from Arizona State University, came from Arizona’s mountainous mining communities , such as Superior, Morenci, Ray, Ajo, Bisbee, Jerome, Miami, and Globe. Purportedly raised in communities where union activity was a social center...

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