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128 \f Th e Constitutionalit y o f Remedial Affirmativ e Actio n all pertinent elements of diversity in light of the particular qualifications of each applicant , an d t o place them o n the sam e footing fo r consideration , although not necessarily according them the same weight.34 For Powell, diversity admission s program s were constitutional becaus e they treate d ever y applican t a s a n individua l wit h fungibl e subjectiv e qualities. The diversit y policy did not rest on the candidate's membershi p in a grou p but , rather , focused o n eac h applicant' s individua l qualities . Therefore, a candidate would neve r b e rejecte d unde r suc h a plan solel y because of race. And, Powell wrote, good faith b y the admissions commit tees would b e presumed, absen t a showing to the contrary. 35 Although Powell' s logi c i s ofte n problemati c t o th e extreme , h e wa s correct here t o endorse th e us e of diversity factors . Indeed , suc h a policy does no more than acknowledge what is a reality in America: In numerou s ways, whitenes s ha s bee n a plu s facto r i n publi c an d privat e decisio n making, an d i t is impossible t o prevent al l but th e mos t egregiou s case s of whit e privilege . T o balanc e th e scales , therefore , i t i s necessar y t o make other racial classifications a plus as well. There i s n o reaso n tha t a diversity mode l coul d no t b e use d outsid e education a s well . I t doe s no t promot e racia l cast e fo r whites , an d i t ensures a n en d t o educationa l an d occupationa l segregation . An y pla n short o f tha t woul d freez e ou t minoritie s an d whit e women , wh o hav e only recently gaine d limite d acces s to the mean s o f advancement i n thi s society. In recent cases, the Supreme Court has failed t o indicate whether a diversity model would surviv e its latest rulings. THE INVENTION O F REVERSE DISCRIMINATIO N If Bakk e wa s a victim , i t wa s no t o f racia l discrimination , bu t o f a history o f racial privileg e fo r white male s who stil l disproportionatel y fil l American medica l schools . T o Bakk e an d other s lik e him , I say , don' t blame contemporar y Africa n Americans ; instead, blam e whites fro m pre vious generations whose privileges have produced a new system in which whiteness is no more a plus than another person's race. Since Bakke, th e Cour t ha s decide d severa l similar case s i n whic h a white plaintif f ha s challenge d affirmativ e actio n program s sponsore d o r mandated b y a governmental o r private entity . Perhap s th e cleares t con clusion tha t on e ca n dra w fro m thes e case s i s tha t th e Cour t remain s substantially divide d regardin g th e meanin g an d requirement s o f th e equal protectio n claus e an d titl e VI I i n case s involvin g remedia l racia l The Constitutionalit y o f Remedia l Affirmativ e Actio n \f 12 9 classifications. I shall review these landmar k cases in some detail becaus e they illustrat e bot h wh y affirmativ e actio n program s wer e adopte d an d why we must continue t o use them . United Steelworkers of America v. Weber In 1974 , the Unite d Steelworker s o f America (USWA ) and Kaiser Aluminum (Kaiser) entered int o a collective bargaining agreement that include d an affirmative actio n plan. This pla n was designed t o eliminate conspicu ous racia l imbalance s i n Kaiser' s almos t exclusivel y whit e craf t forces . A case lik e Weber reveals a union an d a...

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