Deviant and Criminal Behavior in the Workplace

8. The Role of Social Power in Sexual Harassment and Job Discrimination

178 > 179 Reward power is said to be at use when a powerholder promises some form of compensation to a target in exchange for compliance. For instance, a supervisor may provide “time off” to a subordinate in exchange for the subordinate completing a task that is not part of his or her job description. Coercive power is at use when the threat of punishment is made in order to gain compliance. For example, a manager may threaten to reduce a subordinate’s pay should he or she not comply with a certain request. Legitimate power stems from one having a justifiable right to request compliance from another individual. For instance, subordinates may comply with a supervisor’s request simply because they believe a supervisor has a right to ask them to do their work in a certain way. Expert power is at use when one relies on his or her superior knowledge in order to gain compliance. For example, management may follow the advice of consultants because those consultants are perceived as possessing a highlevel of expertise in their field. Referent power is at use when a target complies with the request of a powerholder due to his or her identifying with the influencing agent. For instance, an employee wishing to receive a promotion will likely comply with requests made by managers due to his or her wanting a similar position as those managers in the future. Informational power is at use when an individual provided a rational explanation to a target as to why compliance is desired. For example, a subordinate may complete an undesirable task because his or her supervisor provides a logical explanation as to why the task needs to be completed. Instances of how these power bases can be leveraged in order to perpetrate sexual harassment, and/or engage in discriminatory practices, are fairly easy to consider. For example, coercive power is at work when an employer threatens to terminate an employee if he or she does not comply with a request to engage in a sexual relationship. A blending of reward and coercive power is at work during instances of quid pro quo. A male employer may use his legitimate power to avoid hiring females. A supervisor may withhold information (informational power) from a certain group of employees (say, minorities) in order to make their jobs more difficult. It is important to note that power is present in all social relationships, including all relationships observed in the workplace. Also noteworthy is that power and influence do not only occur in situations where the powerholder possesses a higher status or rank than the target of the influence attempt. For instance, Yukl and colleagues (Yukl & Falbe, 1990, 1991; Yukl & Tracey, 1992) have differentiated between upward (as in a subordinate influencing a supervisor), downward (as in a supervisor influencing a subordinate ), and lateral (as in peers influencing one another) influence attempts. When taking this into consideration, the potential for sexual harassment and 180 > 181 Crowley, Tope & Hodson, 2008; Browne, 2006; Wilson & Thompson, 2001). However, several scholars have attempted to categorize the domain of sexual harassment and the behaviors that are deemed inappropriate in a workplace setting. Wilson & Thompson (2001) discuss five types of sexual harassment that are recognized by the European Commission. In non-verbal sexual harassment, perpetrators use a variety of hand gestures, whistling, or displaying suggestive pictures for the target to see. Physical sexual harassment involves one employee unnecessarily touching another employee. Verbal sexual harassment encompasses the act of suggesting unsolicited advances. Intimidation includes the use of coercive strategies that are targeted at the victim’s apparel, on the job performance, or overall appearance. The final form of sexual harassment is sexual blackmail. As one of the most treacherous forms of sexual harassment, sexual blackmail involves the agent threatening to reveal sensitive information to others if the target does not comply with the demands for sexual favors. Chamberlain, Crowley, Tope & Hodson (2008) recognize three types of sexual harassment in organizations ranging from the least severe to the most severe. Patronizing includes sexist, albeit nonsexual, comments and actions. Sexual taunting consists of behavior that “has crossed the line” and includes gestures, comments, and inquiries of a sexual nature that foster an uncomfortable and hostile workplace. Predatory sexual harassment, which is the most threatening form of harassment, includes such coercive sexual behaviors as frequent threats, soliciting sexual favors, and/or aggressive contact. Two categories of sexual harassment...