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France. This trend is surprisingly comparable to the long-standing dominant trend in the United States. Schain states that the United States has long required some aspects of civic integration now being promulgated in Europe; and U.S antidiscrimination policy was a model for the British program, which is now, in turn, a model for other European countries. As a result, “the dynamics that have driven changes in integration policies in France and the United States during the past forty years have been very similar. In both countries, considerations of domestic security and a quest for public order resulted in policies that were either in practice or in principle multicultural.” However, Schain argues that national models are nonetheless still important for understanding the limits of convergence because, in each country, they differentiate the direction, content, and intensity of integration policies—and have an impact on the perception of the relative success or failure of different integration policies. Next, Romain Garbaye compares the policy changes that have taken place in the field of immigrant integration policy in Britain and France in the post-9/11 context . Garbaye suggests that national policies are less resilient—a complexity compounded by the role of the EU. He argues that there is a rapid and far-reaching evolution on both sides of the English Channel, leading to a high degree of convergence between the French assimilationist and British multicultural policies. Certainly, there are signs, Garbaye argues, that these two models are converging toward a middle ground, which can be tentatively labeled as a moderately integrationist line. In this regard, Garbaye identifies three crossing paths: the implementation of a more effective antidiscrimination policy; a common tendency to construct debates on diversity increasingly in terms of religious, rather than ethnic or racial, diversity (in particular, with respects to Muslims); and the emphasis on civic integration. All these elements of convergence, he argues, are related to the import of foreign examples—such as the American civil rights movement that has greatly influenced British policy makers. By using foreign examples as a source of inspiration for the renovation of their policies, both the French and British are therefore moving away from their postwar and postcolonial heritage, a trend that highlights the limitation of the notion of national models. Tellingly, Garbaye also suggests that there are grounds for greater involvement of the EU in the field of integration policy. Indeed, both French and British policies have been reformed under the aegis of EU policy. Garbaye states that “the EU probably has scope for expanding its activities in the domains of protection of religious minorities, building on its work against discrimination on religious grounds.” The book then moves away from analysis at the national level. François Bonnet examines law enforcement and discriminatory practices in three cities—Lyon in France, Milan in Italy, and New York City in the United States—in order to address the issue of migrant integration at the local level. Using qualitative techniques, he measures the impact of two key factors that, he argues, explain the variations in the treatment of minorities by police forces and law enforcement agencies across the A. CHEBEL D’APPOLLONIA AND S. REICH 14 three cities. The first is the economic usefulness of minorities, defined as a combination of purchasing power and the positive contribution in addressing labor shortages . The second is political empowerment by which immigrants organize themselves and claim specific rights through social activism, legal action, politics, and demonstrations. Bonnet’s evidence suggests that discrimination against minorities decreases when they are perceived as economically useful, while political empowerment has no significant influence. A better integration of immigrants, his results suggest, should therefore focus on access to economic opportunities rather than political participation or other aspects of civic integration. Again departing from the traditional national comparisons, Lynellyn Long provides a sectoral comparison, addressing the case of foreign health care workers in the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. In July 2007, when terrorists involved in health care services attacked Glasgow International Airport, new concerns were raised about terrorist threats posed by this group. “Put simply,” Long suggests that the episode raised the specter among national publics that “good doctors who observe the Hippocratic oath in their medical practice could still become terrorists.” In the United States and western European countries, foreign doctors and health care workers subsequently came under suspicion and surveillance. Suddenly aware that the continuing demand for international workers in this field...

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