A Civil Society Deferred: The Tertiary Grip of Violence in the Sudan

Notes

Notes Preface 1. Giddens, Nation-State, 11. 2. Robert Fossaert, quoted in Young, African Colonial State, 221. 3. Ibid. 4. Said, Culture and Imperialism, xxii. 5. Hobson, Imperialism, v. 6. Hobsbawm, “Globalization,” 224. 7. Ibid. 8. Helms, Ulysses’ Sail, 9. 9. Hansen and Stepputat, “States of Imagination,” 19. 10. Ibid., 1. 11. O’Neill, “Class and Politics,” 25. 12. Mamdani, Good Muslim, 52. 13. When the Sudan was reconquered by a joint Anglo-Egyptian campaign, the two occupying governments “created a hybrid form of government, hitherto unknown to international jurisprudence,” and Cromer himself admitted that “it was to some extent the child of opportunism.” Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2:114. Egypt, as Woodward explains, “had paid for the expedition and provided many of the troops; now she was being fobbed off with little more than a symbolic role in her former territories.” Woodward, Sudan, 15. For the British, and according to the condominium agreement, the Sudan was under the responsibility of the Foreign Office in London rather than the Colonial Office. 14. Horatio Kitchener was born in Ireland in 1850 and died in 1916. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy and entered the Royal Engineers in 1871. In 1892 he become commander in chief (sirdar) of the Egyptian army and commanded the reconquest of the Sudan, which took more than two years: 1896. After defeating the Sudanese army at the battle of Karari he was named Lord Kitchener of Khartoum and the first governor general of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. 15. Sir Reginald Wingate was born in Scotland in 1861 and died in 1953. He was a British general and imperial administrator, principal founder of the colonial state, and governor general of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan until 1916. He succeeded Kitchener as governor general of the Sudan and sirdar of the Egyptian army in 1899. 16. Evelyn Baring (1841–1917), first earl of Cromer, was a British statesman, diplomat, and colonial administrator. He was British controller general in Egypt in 1879 and later agent and consul general in Egypt from 1883 to 1907. Lord Cromer was the author of the condominium agreement that in 1898 he and Boutros Ghali signed as the Agreement for the Administration of the Sudan. 17. Rudolf Karl, baron von Slatin, was born in 1857, at Ober St. Veit, near Vienna, and died in 1932. An Austrian soldier in the service of England in the Sudan, he became famous for his stay in the Sudan during the Mahdists’ rule (1883–99). He converted to Islam and renamed himself Abdelgadir in order to improve morale among his Sudanese troops. He was governor of Darfur Province before being captured and held prisoner by the Mahdists. He escaped after eleven years and served Lord Kitchener in the reconquest of Sudan against the Mahdists. His nearly forty years in the Sudan and his knowledge of the country, its people, and language proved to be invaluable for the establishment of the colonial state in the Sudan. 18. The 'arråqi is a knee-length Sudanese garment. This term white-'arråqi is used here to refer to an emerging category of peasant workers connected to the Gezira Scheme on par with blue-collar railway workers, white-collar government workers, and khaki-collar army workers. 19. Abdel Ghaffar Moḥamed Aḥmed, “Management of Crisis.” 20. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2:129. 21. Alexander, Civil Sphere, 9. Chapter 1. The Sociopolitical Construction of a Country 1. These names include Kush (or Cush), Nubia, Yam, Ta-Seti, Kerma, Meroe, and Ethiopia. During the Christian period other names, such as Nubatia, Mukurra , and Alwa, were applied. These names all carry implications of color, race, or geographical place. 2. Spaulding, Heroic Age, xvii. 3. Ibid., xviii. 4. Ibid., xviii–xix. 5. Mu˙ammad 'Ali Pasha (1769–1849) was the Ottoman wåli, or governor general , of Egypt (1805–49) and is often recognized as the founder of Mu˙ammad 'Ali’s family dynasty, which extended its rule in Egypt until 1952. Mu˙ammad 'Ali is often cited as the builder of modern Egypt. He extended his power over the Sudan in 1821 to seek strategic raw materials such as gold and ivory for his treasury, to expand his empire, and to acquire slaves for his army. The TurkoEgyptian administration (known as the Turkiyya) ruled the country till 1885. 6. Powell, Different Shade, 27. 7. Sayyid-Marsot, Egypt in the Reign, 197. 8. 'Abdel-Ra˙im, “Arabism, Africanism,” 237. 202 · Notes to Pages xv–3...