Notes
179 Notes 1. Qualitative-Quantitative Research: A False Dichotomy 1. Carolyn S. Ridenour published under the name Carolyn R. Benz prior to 1999. 2. The dramatic impacts of the works of Deming (1991) and Barker (1992) to organizations exemplify strong paradigmatic shifts. 3. Idealism refers to the belief that “places special value on ideas and ideals as products of the mind, in comparison with the world as perceived through the senses”(http://www.questia.com/library/philosophy/idealismphilosophy .jsp). 4. Data is a term used in both quantitative and qualitative research to refer to the evidence (numerical evidence or narrative evidence). We use it because it is simple in form. We do acknowledge (and use from time to time) the term preferred by Denzin and Lincoln (1994), empirical materials, which is more accurate in qualitative research and may be more appealing to some readers. 5. For other discussions of “truth,” see, for example, Guba & Lincoln, 1982, 1985; Howe & Eisenhart, 1990; Kvale, 1983; LeCompte & Goetz, 1982; Miles & Huberman, 1984; J. K. Smith, 1983; and Smith & Heshusius , 1986. 6. For our purposes here, Gage’s (1963) definition of paradigms is useful “models, patterns. . . . Paradigms are not theories; they are rather ways of thinking or patterns for research that, when carried out, can lead to the development of theory” (p. 95). 2. The Qualitative-Quantitative Research Continuum 1. Campbell and Stanley (1963) wrote the classic treatise on quantitative research design, including the conceptualizations of internal and external validity and their relationships to research design. Their work has probably been and continues to be the most frequently cited work in quantitative behavioral research. They provided the foundation on which other methodologists have built new models (e.g., Krathwohl, 2004). Shadish, Cook, and Campbell (2002) is the first updated version of their model. 2. For a sampling of those researchers who apply multiple methods to their research, see Placek & Dobbs, 1988; Ragin, 1987; Reichardt & Cook, 1979; Shulman, 1986; and Stivers & Srinivasan, 1991. 3. For examples of studies in which the competitive basis of qualitative versus quantitative research is discussed, see Guba, 1978; Guba & Lincoln, 1982, 1989; Howe & Eisenhart, 1990; Kvale, 1983; LeCompte & Goetz, 1982; Miles & Huberman, 1984; J.K. Smith, 1983; and J. K. Smith & Heshusius, 1986. 4. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) chronicled the evolution of qualitative research across the last century, identifying the unique perspectives (epistemologies or methods) that were dominant during seven time periods (using the language “seven moments”). While their chronology places the postpositivist perspective (which we find closest to our own perspective) as emerging and dominant between 1950 and 1986, they acknowledge its continuing legitimacy during the present time. They label the time period of 2000 to the present and beyond, “the methodologically contested present,” a time of much tension and conflict among researchers who are opting for a wide variety of “ways of knowing” and qualitative methods. The “methodologically contested present” includes an appreciation for all the dominant perspectives of all the past periods, including, for example, the modernist, postmodernist, postpositivist, critical theorist, and morally driven approaches. 3. Validity and Trustworthiness of Research 1. Many measurement texts provide detailed discussions (e.g., Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1990; Gay, 1987; McMillan, 2006). 2. Higher-order factorial design is defined in a number of classical statistical textbooks (e.g., Edwards, 1960; Kirk, 1968). Discussion of these designs is beyond the scope of his book. 4. Strategies to Enhance Validity and Trustworthiness 1. Spradley (1979) describes elements of the ethnographic interview, including several types of questions: ethnographic, descriptive, structural , contrast, cultural-ignorance expression, repeating, restating, and so on (p. 67). 5. Applying the Qualitative-Quantitative Interactive Continuum 1. The critique was completed by a spring 1991 University of Akron graduate research class: Sally Gartner, Miriam Keresman, Sandi Sommers , Jayne Speicher, and Brian Tindall. notes to pages 28–100 180 6. “Science” and a Search for Principles of Practice in Mixed Methods 1. Much of this chapter is taken from “Implementing Mixed Methods Research Designs in the Real World: Purposes, Dilemmas, and New Perspectives ,” a paper presented in April 2005 by the authors at the annual convention of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal. note to page 109 181 ...
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