Railroads in the Old South: Pursuing Progress in a Slave Society

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INDEX

accidents, 184

causes, 127–30

complaints about, 179–81

fatal, 50, 68, 85

investigations, 129–31

passenger response, 131–33

prevention, 88, 90

severity, 127, 131

and slaves, 64, 235n42

Aiken, South Carolina: hotels in, 173

and South Carolina Railroad, 36, 88, 100, 109, 125, 165, 169, 179, 185

travel in, 124, 147

workshops in, 68

Alabama, 18, 33, 114, 176

canals in, 12

early railroads in, 11, 15, 23, 187

railroad statistics, 4, 5

travel in, 132. See also Tuscaloosa

Alabama and Tennessee Railroad, 189

alcohol, 63, 72–73, 97–98, 223n47

Allen, Horatio, 33, 53, 90, 128

and laborers, 56

as promoter, 14, 19

training, 32, 34

willingness to experiment, 35–36, 37, 95–96

American Railroad Journal, 12, 14–16, 22–23, 35, 189

Arkansas, 5

Atlanta, Georgia, 174

Augusta, Georgia, 182

and early railroads, 31

and South Carolina Railroad, 24, 174

travel in, 136, 143, 147, 149

Baltimore, Maryland, 154, 157, 188

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 34, 52

and labor, 55

and steam power, 31

travel on, 143

Baltimore and Philadelphia Railroad, 34

Bangs, Anson, 43–44, 50–51

Bell, N. J., 35, 69, 82, 141, 195

bells, 94, 132, 141, 142, 148. See also sound; whistles

Berry, Fannie, 158–59

Bird, Henry, 32, 37, 97–98, 158

Birnie, William, 41, 57, 72

Blanding, William, 146–47

Bliss, George, 38

Blue Ridge Railroad (of South Carolina) (BRRR), 2, 28–29, 70–71, 73, 216n62, 221n35

and landowners, 18

and slave laborers, 42

and state funding, 19, 20. See also Stumphouse Mountain

Blue Ridge Railroad (of Virginia), 81, 159

boards of directors, 48, 94, 186. See also specific companies

Bolling, Blair, 93–94, 131–32, 162–63

boosters, 6, 11–12

challenges faced, 18–25

early boosters, 12–16

as part of a national movement, 15

principal arguments of, 13–16, 27–29. See also Perry, Benjamin

Boston, Massachusetts, 156

Boston and Lowell Railroad, 92, 98

Boston and Providence Railroad, 33, 34

Boston and Worcester Railroad: and alcohol, 98

and civil engineers, 215n55

and landowners, 26

and nature, 38

and time, 90, 168

Boyce, Ker, 48

Boyce, Mary, 99, 140, 148, 172

Branchville, South Carolina, 41, 47, 88, 89, 147, 174

bridges, 184, 187

Broome, Anne, 172

Brunswick and Florida Railroad, 62

Buck, Nelson, 163

bureaucracy, 46–48, 64, 84, 86–87

use of preprinted forms, 34, 46, 63

Burges, Samuel, 1–2, 5, 10, 133, 178–79

California, 4, 5

Camden, South Carolina, 152

boosterism in, 27

and South Carolina Railroad, 39, 86, 128, 177, 190

travel in, 156

canals, 12–13, 17, 20, 31, 217n5. See also water transportation

Carpenter, Lucy, 139, 143, 156

Central Railroad of Georgia (CRRG), 34, 174, 194

and accidents, 131

and contractors, 41

and disease, 126

and freight, 117, 233n24, 234n25

and labor, 55, 71–72

and landowners, 17

and rolling stock, 101, 103

and slavery, 57, 58

and state funding, 20

and time, 96

and water transportation, 188

and white labor, 68

Charleston, South Carolina, 17, 28, 35, 47, 48, 70, 142, 163

boosterism in, 11, 13, 16, 27

and Civil War, 192, 193

competition with other cities, 23, 24, 31

damage from railroads, 180

and disease, 125–26

and Sabbatarianism, 165–67

and South Carolina Railroad, 67, 68, 84, 88, 93, 97, 100, 109, 117, 125, 152, 156, 173, 174, 185, 188, 190

travel in, 136, 141, 147, 149, 150, 182

and U.S. Post Office, 169–70

Charleston and Hamburg Railroad. See South Carolina Railroad

Charleston and Savannah Railroad, 2, 23

and civil engineers, 33, 49

and rolling stock, 101

and slavery, 62, 77

travel on, 178–79

Charlotte and South Carolina Railroad (CSCRR), 27

cooperation with other railroads, 190

and freight, 113, 119

and landowners, 21

and slavery, 58, 61, 63

Cheraw and Darlington Railroad, 2, 136

Chesbrough, E. S., 33, 34–35

Cincinnati, Ohio, 13, 16

City Point Railroad, 58, 108, 168

City Railroad (Philadelphia), 26, 175

civil engineers: and contractors, 39–44, 47, 49–53

and experimentation, 35–37

federal provision of, 32

mobility of, 8, 32–33

and politics, 47–48

and the public, 48–49

skills of, 32, 37

training of, 31–35, 53

workload of, 46–47, 53, 85–86

Civil War, 2, 3, 53, 192–94, 237n10

Clemson, Anna Calhoun, 99, 136, 139–40, 157, 172

clocks and watches: and boards of directors, 94

and conductors, 88–89, 99

and engineers, 89

and passengers, 91, 147

at stations, 87–88. See also time

Columbia, South Carolina, 17, 38, 41, 115, 119

boosterism in, 27, 36

celebration in, 163

and Sabbatarians, 166

and South Carolina Railroad, 90, 117, 167

Columbus, Georgia, 24, 188

comfort, 143–44

conductors, 58, 185

and accidents, 128, 130, 133

and aural cues, 141

authority of, 98–99, 127, 153–54, 155

and counterfeit money, 99

and freight, 107, 109–10

interaction with passengers, 145, 152, 156–57

judging passengers’ race, 152–54

and time management, 88–89, 98–99

Connecticut, 103, 133

labor in, 56

opposition to railroads in, 25

railroad statistics, 4, 5

construction, 17, 84

celebration of completion, 162–64

challenges, 37–39, 45, 47, 50–53, 212n16

contracts for, 39–40, 43, 51, 52

equipment for, 47, 51–52, 70

techniques, 11, 35–37, 50

contractors, 62, 64

and civil engineers, 39–44, 47

fiscal responsibilities of, 43–46

planters as contractors, 40, 41–42

contracts: for railroad construction, 39–40, 43, 45–46, 51, 52

for slaves, 62–63, 77, 79

Cooke, Edward St. George, 46–47, 53

cotton, 18, 45, 77, 103, 139, 141, 198, 207n21

and agricultural cycle, 88, 121, 123

in booster rhetoric, 12, 14

and depot design, 177

as freight, 93, 106, 112–13, 115, 117, 126, 176, 189

and labor, 109

price of, 22, 56, 172

Craven, A. W., 39, 40, 70

Crozet, Claudius, 81

Cunynghame, Arthur, 111–12, 145, 155

Davidson, James, 123, 136, 138, 147, 173–74

Davis, Young Winston, 218n9

Delaware, 4, 5, 6

Delaware and Hudson Railroad, 33

depots, 139, 140, 175, 176, 188, 192

activity at, 178–79, 192

design of, 177

slave sale at, 111–12

Derricotte, Ike, 192

disease, 38–39, 125–26

Douglass, Frederick, 143–44, 154

East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad, 172, 184, 189, 194

and accidents, 131, 235n42

and alcohol, 97

and contractors, 70

and landowners, 22

and rolling stock, 104

and slavery, 152

and telegraph, 90

East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad (ETVRR), 184, 185, 189

and accidents, 74

and alcohol, 97

celebration of completion, 163

cooperation with stagecoaches, 187

and labor, 72, 76

and landowners, 21

and livestock, 180–81

and Sabbatarians, 168

and telegraph, 90

and time, 92

and vandals, 179

Elliott, William, 143, 148

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 3

engineers, 58

and accidents, 127, 130

and aural cues, 141

and time, 88–89

equipment and rolling stock: freight, 100, 103–4, 107

origin of, 100, 101, 103–4

passenger, 100–103, 104, 230n52. See also locomotives

experimentation, 1, 11, 31, 34–37

Fambro, Hanna, 58, 59, 184, 185–86

federal government, 32, 171

firemen: and accidents, 74, 128, 129

slaves as, 58, 68, 77

Fleming, L. D., 34

Florida, 22–23, 73

canals in, 12

railroad statistics, 4, 5, 6

food. See taste

Fraser, Charles, 142, 158

Frederick, James, 148, 178, 183–84

Fredericksburg, Virginia, 23–24, 27, 72, 96

free blacks: as laborers, 58, 128, 129

as passengers, 152, 154

freight, 90, 136, 176, 231n1

bidirectional traffic, 112–21

night work, 97

and private turnouts, 94, 112, 176–77

rolling stock, 100, 103–4

rules, 107

and Sabbatarians, 165, 166, 167

storage, 107–8, 109–10, 177

types, 28, 29, 106, 113–15

work requirements, 106–9

funding, 12

difficulty of securing, 18–21

from individuals, 18–19, 20, 21

from state governments, 6, 19–21

Gadsden, James, 48, 102, 112, 188–89, 228n23

Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, 25

Georgia, 24, 66

early railroads in, 11

freight in, 114

laborers in, 69, 82

railroad statistics, 3, 4, 5, 6

state funding of railroads in, 21

travel in, 139. See also Atlanta; Augusta; Columbus; Macon; Savannah

Georgia Railroad, 33

incorporation of, 31

night operation, 96

rolling stock, 102

and slavery, 61

and time, 94

and white laborers, 189

Gerstner, Franz Anton Ritter von: in Georgia, 103

in Louisiana, 93

in South Carolina, 71

in Virginia, 68, 96, 108, 152, 168, 175, 227n22

Girard and Mobile Railroad. See Mobile and Girard Railroad

Glass, John, 69, 73, 82, 95

Glass, Maria, 138

Glenn, Robert, 110

Grayson, William, 149

Greenville, South Carolina, 28, 115

Greenville and Columbia Railroad, 2, 35, 140

cooperation with other railroads, 190, 191

and freight, 114–15, 119

and landowners, 17

and water transportation, 188

and weather, 125

Gregg, William, 20, 27

Gwynn, Walter, 52

Hamburg, South Carolina, 11, 195

and South Carolina Railroad, 84, 87, 90, 117, 165, 169, 170

and time, 88

weather in, 124–25

Hamburgh Railroad. See South Carolina Railroad

Hammond, James Henry, 158

opposition to state spending, 20, 24–25, 27, 207n21

organizer of celebration, 163

Harden, William, 101, 194

Harris, Jeremiah, 132, 140, 178

Haupt, Herman, 34, 56

Heuser, Louis, 101, 139, 178

Hiwassee Railroad. See East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad

Hobbs, Thomas, 103, 174, 178

Horry, Elias, 17, 169

horses, 91, 94, 136

and civil engineers, 70

and construction, 71

pulling trains, 26, 31, 180

reaction to trains, 141

hotels and taverns, 143, 144, 157, 173–74

Howze, Isham, 142

Illinois, 4, 5, 6, 16

Illinois Central Railroad, 57

Indiana, 4, 5, 16

Iowa, 4, 5

James, Mary Moriah Anne Susanna, 155

Jarnagan, Andrew Jackson, 163

Jervis, John, 32, 34

Jones, Charles Colcock, 114, 150, 171

Keenan, Sally Layton, 138

Kentucky, 1, 4, 5, 110

Knoxville, Tennessee, 13, 50

Kollock, George, 132, 150

labor, 69–70

amusement, 82

apprenticeships, 67–68, 221n35

difficulty of acquiring, 55–57

housing for, 71–72

racial integration, 68–69

size of work forces, 50, 52–53, 55–56

skilled, 66–68

slave vs. free, 6, 66–67

strikes, 81–82

unskilled, 66–67

wages, 56, 76, 77, 79–82

work time, 52, 64, 94–97, 108–9, 166, 168. See also slave laborers; white laborers

land: acquired by railroads, 17–18, 21–22, 26, 48–49

economic impact of railroads on, 28, 173

viewed by passengers, 139

landowners: complaints during construction, 26, 49

turning over land, 17–18, 21–22, 26, 48–49

Latrobe, Benjamin Henry, 34

livestock, 180–81. See also accidents

locomotives, 99–100, 103

sensory impact of, 1, 138

steam vs. horse power, 26, 31. See also equipment and rolling stock

Louisa Railroad, 24, 41, 55, 150, 173

Louisiana, 4, 5, 12, 178

Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston Railroad (LCCRR): and civil engineers, 33, 46, 47

construction of, 38, 39–40, 41–42

coordination with other companies, 24

and freight, 115, 121

and labor, 76

and landowners, 49

night trains on, 96

and Sabbatarians, 165

and slavery, 61. See also South Carolina Railroad

Lyell, Charles, 101, 139, 174

Mackay, Alexander, 125, 139

Macon, Georgia, 156, 175

Macon and Western Railroad, 66

mail. See U.S. Post Office Department

Maine, 4, 5

management, 84, 85–87

Maryland, 4, 5, 15. See also Baltimore

Massachusetts, 41, 103

civil engineers, 33

early railroads in, 11

opposition to railroads in, 25, 26

railroad statistics, 3, 4, 5, 6. See also Boston

Maury, Ann, 144–45, 148–49, 157

May, Ann, 138

McGill, Samuel, 141, 149

McRae, John, 7, 71, 189

and boosters, 22, 27

and bureaucracy, 86–87

and competition, 23, 24

and contractors, 39–46

and depot design, 177

and disease, 39

and experiments, 31

and landowners, 21–22, 48–50

and nature, 38

and networking, 34–35

and pedestrians, 182

as planter, 152, 157

and politics, 48

and rolling stock, 100–102, 103

and slavery, 56, 64–66, 77

and speed, 91–92

and time, 89, 95, 96–97

and training, 32

Memphis and Charleston Railroad, 189

celebration of completion, 163

and livestock, 181

and Sabbatarians, 168

and slavery, 75

and turnouts, 94

Michigan, 4, 5

Minor, D. K., 27, 30, 35, 189

and southern railroads, 15–16, 22–23

Mississippi, 73, 187

canals in, 12

Civil War, 192

early railroads in, 11

railroad statistics, 3, 4, 5

towns abandoned, 175

travel in, 142, 144

Mississippi and Pearl River Railroad, 58

Mississippi and Tennessee Railroad, 175

Mississippi Central Railroad, 28, 59, 61

Missouri, 4, 5

Mobile and Girard Railroad, 191

Mobile and Ohio Railroad, 33, 82, 163, 192

modernization, 158–59, 182, 197–98

and sensory perception, 1, 138, 140–46

and slave society, 2, 6–8, 10

Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, 248n55

Montgomery and West Point Railroad, 13, 58, 66

Moore, Jerry, 192–93

Moragne, Mary, 101, 145–46, 148, 178

Morgan, Sarah, 193

Napier, Thomas, 23, 27, 173

Nashua and Lowell Railroad, 92, 98, 234n30

Nashville, Tennessee, 11, 110

nature, 106

and problems with construction, 37–38

and problems with operations, 123–26, 234n30

and time, 94–97, 123–26

New Hampshire, 4, 5, 25

New Jersey, 4, 5, 6

New Orleans and Ohio Railroad, 33

New York, 70, 100, 136

canals in, 12

and competition, 14–15, 23

railroad statistics, 3, 4, 5, 6

New York and Erie Railroad, 14–15

New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, 26–27

night trains, 95–97, 127, 156, 170, 182

Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad, 90

North Carolina, 28, 68, 164, 191

boosterism in, 15, 18–19, 21, 27

canals in, 12

and competition, 23

economy in, 14, 172

law, 75

railroad statistics, 4, 5

slavery in, 155

travel in, 101, 110, 125, 132, 145. See also Raleigh

Weldon

Wilmington

North Carolina Central Railroad (NCCRR), 190

North Carolina Railroad (NCRR): and alcohol, 73

cooperation with other railroads, 190

and landowners, 17, 204

and slavery, 58

and telegraph, 90

Northeastern Railroad, 2, 23, 81–82, 175

Northwestern Virginia Railroad, 48

Norwich and Worcester Railroad, 168

Nott, Samuel, 38, 44

Ocmulgee and Flint Railroad, 58

Ohio, 4, 5, 6, 16, 25. See also Cincinnati

Olmsted, Frederick Law: on aural cues, 142

on freight, 112, 176

on hotels, 150

on labor, 108–9

on passengers, 144, 153

on rolling stock, 103

and slavery, 111, 139, 153

Orange and Alexandria Railroad, 43, 70, 72, 171

Orangeburg, South Carolina, 39, 163

passengers, 7, 36, 106, 136

children as, 144, 146, 152, 154–55

and class distinctions, 150–51, 156

comments on other passengers, 110, 139–40, 144, 153

entertainment on train, 140

European, 101, 111–12, 131, 139, 150–51, 155, 178 (see also Cunynghame, Arthur; Heuser, Louis; Lyell, Charles; Mackay, Alexander)

fares, 154–55, 168, 184–86

and gender distinctions, 101, 151, 153, 156–57, 177, 178

growth in number, 136–37, 149–50

perception of time, 91, 146–49

and racial distinctions, 151–56

reaction to accidents, 127, 131–33

reaction to first trip, 1, 137–38, 194–96

reasons for travel, 150, 184–85, 193

rolling stock, 100–103, 104, 230n52. See also slaves: as passengers

pedestrians, 9, 136

during railroad travel, 110, 133, 144–45

using railroad tracks, 182–84

Pendleton, South Carolina, 18

Pennsylvania, 32, 33, 158

and competition, 14, 25–26

railroad statistics, 3, 4, 5, 6. See also Philadelphia

Pennsylvania Railroad: and competition, 14–15

and labor, 56, 82

management, 34

passengers on, 156

and Sabbatarians, 168

and speed, 92

and time, 90

Perry, Benjamin, 29, 114–15, 119

Petersburg, Virginia, 97, 176

depots in, 175, 186

travel in, 150, 188, 195

Petersburg Railroad, 68, 81, 152–53, 174, 188

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 26, 100, 103, 148, 150

Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, 44, 56

Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad, 26

Philadelphia and Washington Railroad, 25

planters: as contractors, 40, 41–42

investing in railroads, 18

investing in slaves, 2

and modernity, 5, 6–7

as shippers, 12, 13, 112, 176, 190

Pontchartrain Railroad, 93, 174

Rail-Road Advocate, 12

railroads: compared to other types of transportation, 12–13, 24, 135–36, 149, 189, 236n1

comparing northern and southern, 2–6, 8–9, 14–15, 38, 44, 53–54, 56–57, 82, 84, 90, 98–99, 175, 196–97, 223n55, 248n44, 248n55

competition among, 22–25, 26–27

cooperation among, 189–91

economic benefits of, 13–15, 112–15, 172–73

expansion, 5–6, 11, 27

and law, 25–26, 74, 75, 180, 182

in literature, 158–61

in memory, 1, 194–96

as metaphor, 157–58, 160

moral benefits of, 172

opposition to, 8, 9, 20, 22, 25–26, 164–68, 248n55

and preserving the Union, 12, 15–16

and slavery, 8, 12

and stagecoaches, 142, 147, 187

as symbol of progress, 159

system, 14–16, 24, 29, 185–87, 189–91, 193–94

unintended uses, 9, 179, 182–84

and water transportation, 12–13, 23, 170, 187–89. See also individual companies; slavery; slave trade

Raleigh, North Carolina, 170, 176

Raleigh and Gaston Railroad, 18–19, 40, 155, 179, 190

Reconstruction, 194

Redpath, James, 72, 153, 176

R. G. Dun, 19, 51, 52, 125, 171

Rhode Island, 3, 4, 5

Richmond, Virginia, 41, 47, 63, 190

depot in, 175

disease in, 39

prohibition of locomotives in, 91

Sabbatarians in, 164

travel in, 149, 156

Richmond and Danville Railroad (RDRR): and accidents, 129–31, 180

Civil War, 192

conductors on, 99

and contractors, 41, 45, 47, 81

coordination, 190

and freight, 107, 108, 113

funding, 19–20

and labor, 55, 57, 71, 72, 74

and nature, 37

passengers on, 185, 186

and public roads, 187

and rolling stock, 151

and slavery, 66, 153–54

and telegraph, 90

and time, 133

and U.S. Post Office Department, 245n21

Richmond and Petersburg Railroad, 93, 154, 160, 227n22

Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad (RFPRR): and accidents, 96

celebration of completion, 162

and competition, 23–24

cooperation with stagecoaches, 187

cooperation with water transportation, 189

and engineers, 67

and labor, 72

and landowners, 48

night trains on, 102–13

and slavery, 59, 63, 66, 75, 76–81, 154

and speed, 91

travel on, 148–49

wages, 76, 77, 80

Robinson, Moncure, 44

Robinson, Solon, 98, 178

rolling stock. See equipment and rolling stock

Rosboro, Al, 138, 195

Sabbatarians, 9, 88, 164–69, 190

Savannah, Georgia, 11, 82, 119, 174, 179

Savannah and Albany Railroad (SARR), 57, 92–93

Schenectady and Troy Railroad, 44

Seabury, Carolina, 132–33, 139, 143, 144

Self-Instructor, 27–28, 33–34

senses. See comfort; sound; taste; vision

Simms, William Gilmore, 160

slave laborers, 6, 52, 110, 205n11

advantages of, 41–42, 57, 61–62, 83

agricultural, 14, 176

bonds and contracts, 62–63, 75, 77, 79

cost, 58–62, 65, 76–81, 220n31

death of, 75–76

disadvantages of, 56, 59–60

extent of slave labor, 8, 55–56, 57, 58

gender of, 57–58

health care, 75

hired, 59–60, 61–66, 77–83

insured by owners, 64

owned by corporations, 59–62, 83

payments received, 66, 79–81

restrictions on, 63, 65–66

and time, 63, 64

and weather, 37

work performed, 58–59, 108–9, 112. See also labor; white laborers

slavery, 2–3, 6–7, 8–9, 29, 197–98. See also slave laborers; slaves; slave trade

slaves: descriptions of railroads, 138, 141, 158–59, 195

escaping via railroads, 111, 143–44, 154, 155–56

as passengers, 8, 110–12, 151–56, 157, 193, 235n42, 237n10

perceived effects of railroads on, 21, 139, 166–67, 175–76

slave trade, 110–12

sleep, 102–3, 107, 144–45, 150, 156, 178, 182

Smith, Anna, 184

Smith, Berry, 141

sound, 21, 111, 145–46, 159, 163, 167

aural cues, 89, 94, 112, 138, 141–42, 166–67, 182, 192–93

music, 82, 109, 110, 163

new sounds of the railroad, 141

representing progress, 28, 142. See also bells; whistles

South Carolina, 48, 142, 195

boosterism in, 27

canals in, 12

and competition, 23

early railroads in, 11

economic impact of railroads in, 113, 114–15, 172–74, 176

freight, 108–9

landowners in, 17–18

railroad statistics, 4, 5

slavery in, 110–11

state funding to railroads in, 20–21

towns created in, 174

towns destroyed in, 175

travel in, 1–2, 25, 133, 138, 139, 185–86, 188

weather in, 124–25. See also Aiken; Branchville; Camden; Charleston; Columbia; Greenville; Hamburg; Orangeburg; Pendelton; Spartanburg; Stumphouse Mountain; Sumter; Walhalla

South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company. See

South Carolina Railroad South Carolina Railroad (SCRR), 3, 7, 187

and accidents, 74, 75–76, 91, 127, 128, 131

and alcohol, 73

and bureaucracy, 46, 197

celebration of completion, 10, 163

and civil engineers, 32, 33

and competition, 23, 24

conductors on, 39, 42–44

construction of, 35–37

contractors on, 70

cooperation with other transportation companies, 188–90

and counterfeit money, 99

depots of, 177

and disease, 125–26

early operations, 11, 13, 53, 195

economic impact of, 15, 172–73

experiments on, 31, 35–37

and freight, 107–10, 112, 117, 119, 121, 123, 176

and labor, 55, 56, 67–68, 71, 76

and landowners, 17, 179–80

and livestock, 180

and nature, 37–38, 124–25

night trains on, 96–97

and politics, 48

and rolling stock, 102–3

and Sabbatarians, 165–68

and slavery, 58–61, 66, 151–52, 154

and sound, 141–42

and state funding, 19

and stockholders, 18

and telegraph, 89–90

and time, 13, 87, 88–90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 105, 146–47, 148

and towns, 174

travel on, 2, 91, 98, 108–9, 123, 137–38, 139, 143, 146–47, 149, 156, 174–75, 185

and U.S. Post Office Department, 169–71

and vandalism, 179

wages, 77. See also Allen, Horatio

Gadsden, James

Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston Railroad

McRae, John

Southern Literary Messenger, 140, 148, 149–50, 158, 159–61

Southside Railroad: cooperation with other transportation companies, 190

depots of, 174

fares, 185

and freight, 114

and labor, 71, 95

and livestock, 181

and rolling stock, 103, 104, 151

and slavery, 154–55

Southwestern Railroad: and accidents, 131

competition with other transportation companies, 189

cooperation with other transportation companies, 191

and freight, 114, 119

and labor, 55, 56, 71

and rolling stock, 104

Spartanburg, South Carolina, 147

Spartanburg and Union Railroad (SURR): and bureaucracy, 86

conductors on, 98

and contractors, 40, 42

depots of, 176

and freight, 108

and landowners, 17–18

and slavery, 58–59

and time, 89

speed: advantage of railroads, 90

passenger comment on, 1, 138, 145–46, 147, 159, 194

and safety, 90–93

as symbol, 158

and time, 13, 90–91

town regulations, 91–92

stagecoaches, 186

cooperation with railroads, 142, 187

railroad’s superiority over, 135–36, 149

Stark, George, 92

Stark, Thomas, 42–43

state governments, 6, 17, 19, 25. See also individual states

steamboats. See water transportation

Stone and Harris, 39, 41. See also Birnie, William

Stroyer, Jacob, 110–11

Stumphouse Mountain (South Carolina), 19, 50–53, 55, 70. See also Blue Ridge Railroad (of South Carolina)

Sumter, South Carolina, 48

Talcott, Andrew, 37, 45–46

taste, 142–43, 163

taverns. See hotels and taverns

telegraph, 89–90

Tennessee, 14, 70

canals in, 12

economic impact of railroads in, 115

opposition to railroads in, 208n34

railroads statistics, 4, 5

slavery in, 155–56

travel in, 136. See also Knoxville

Nashville

Tennessee and Alabama Railroad, 33

Texas, 4, 5, 193

Thomaston and Barnesville Railroad, 17

Thomson, John Edgar, 33, 61, 210n7

Thomsson, Basil, 163–64

Thornton, Tim, 193

time, 197

clock vs. natural time, 9, 12, 87–99, 108–9, 121, 147

coordination among companies, 9, 189–90

coordination within a company, 9, 85, 87–89

and economic benefits, 13

and efficiency, 2, 13, 28, 84, 90, 109, 114, 136, 147

multiplicity, 9, 87–88, 94–95, 108, 121, 134, 169

punctuality, 12, 87, 88–89, 90, 93, 94, 112, 143, 147–48, 169–70, 236n1

regularity, 9, 87, 90, 93, 171, 181

rules, 88–89, 90, 94, 105, 148

and safety, 88–89, 91, 97, 104, 132–33

scheduling, 9, 89, 93–94, 96, 170–71, 187, 189–90

value debated, 93, 164. See also clocks and watches

night trains

Sabbatarians

U.S. Post Office Department

towns, 24–25, 174–75

trade, 20

with the southern interior, 13–14, 23

with the West, 14, 16, 24

Tupper, Thomas, 76, 125–26

Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 28

Tuscumbia, Courtland and Decatur Railroad, 22, 93, 154, 185, 187, 188

U.S. Post Office Department, 9, 96, 245n21

and Sunday delivery, 165–66, 167

and time, 169–71, 181, 190

vandalism, 179

Vermont, 4, 5, 44

Virginia: canals in, 12, 158

civil engineers in, 32, 33

depots in, 179

economic impact of railroads in, 14, 174

labor in, 56

and nature, 124

railroad statistics, 4, 5, 6

slavery in, 155

state funding for railroads in, 19, 23

travel in, 110, 132, 139, 168, 178. See also Fredericksburg

Petersburg

Richmond

Virginia and Tennessee Railroad (VTRR), 189–90

and accidents, 74–75, 128–29, 182

depots of, 178

fares, 155

and freight, 110, 113–14, 119

housing for labor, 72

and livestock, 181

and slavery, 55–56, 64, 81, 155

and time, 89

turnouts on, 176–77

Virginia Central Railroad, 52, 68

vision, 138–41, 145–46, 171, 172

Walhalla, South Carolina, 18

walking. See pedestrians

Washington, D.C., 136, 156, 195–96

water transportation: cooperation with railroads, 187–89

railroad’s superiority over, 12–13, 121, 126, 136, 148. See also canals

weather. See nature

Webster, Daniel, 179

Weldon, North Carolina, 176

Western and Atlantic Railroad, 21, 176, 189

Western North Carolina Railroad, 61–62, 71

Western Railroad (of Massachusetts): and alcohol, 98

and bureaucracy, 85

fares, 156

and labor, 82

and landowners, 26

and nature, 38

night trains on, 156

and Sabbatarians, 268

turnouts on, 248n44

West Feliciana Railroad, 11

Wharton, Joseph, 110, 131

Whipple, Henry, 127, 139

whistles, 89, 138, 141–42, 157, 166, 182, 192

as symbol of progress, 142. See also bells

sound

Whitaker, R. H., 141, 142, 185, 194–96

white laborers, 6, 55, 60, 66–68

death of, 68, 74–75

ethnic rivalries among, 69

imported, 57, 67, 68, 189

injuries to, 74, 223n55

length of hire, 76

wages, 67, 72–73, 77, 80–82. See also labor

slave laborers

Wilmington, North Carolina, 23, 164, 170, 190

travel in, 144, 248, 196

Wilmington and Manchester Railroad (WMRR), 2, 23, 34, 72, 190

Wilmington and Raleigh Railroad / Wilmington and Weldon Railroad, 163, 190, 196

Winchester and Potomac Railroad, 227n22

Wisconsin, 4, 5