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159 INTRODUCTION 1. Ashraf Ghani and Claire Lockhart, Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Francis Fukuyama, StateBuilding : Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004); Gerald B. Heiman and Steven R. Ratner,“Saving Failed States,” Foreign Policy 89 (winter 1992–93), 3–20. 2. J.J.Messner,ed.,The Failed States Index 2011 (Washington,DC: The Fund for Peace, 2011); Daniel Kaufmann, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi,“Governance Matters VIII: Aggregate and Individual Governance Indicators, 1996–2008,” Policy Research Working Paper Series 4978 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2009); Susan E. Rice and Patrick Stewart, Index of State Weakness in the Developing World (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008); Jack A. Goldstone et al., Political Instability Task Force Report: Phase IV Findings (McLean, VA: Science Applications International Corporation, 2003). 3. OECD-DAC International Network on Conflict and Fragility (INCAF), Ensuring Fragile States Are Not Left Behind: 2011 Fact Sheet on Resource Flows in Fragile States (Brussels : OECD, 2009). 4. Stephen D. Krasner and Carlos Pascual, “Addressing State Failure,” Foreign Affairs 84, 4 (2005), 153–163. 5. Nina M. Serafino and Martin A. Weiss, Peacekeeping/Stabilization and Conflict Transitions,” RL32862 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, September 18, 2008), 1. 6. OECD, “Concepts and Dilemmas of State Building in Fragile Situations: From Fragility to Resilience,” Journal on Development 9, 3 (2008), 28. 7. Charles T. Call with Vanessa Wyeth, eds., Building States to Build Peace (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2008); Simon Chesterman, You, the People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration, and State Building (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Simon Chesterman, Michael Ignatieff, and Ramesh Chandra Thakur, Making States Work: State Failure and the Crisis of Governance (New York: United Nations University, 2005); Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Stephen D. Krasner, “Sharing Sovereignty: New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States,” International Security 29, 2 (2004), 85–120. 8. Robert D. Kaplan, “The Coming Anarchy: How Scarcity, Crime, Overpopulation, Tribalism, and Disease Are Rapidly Destroying the Social Fabric of Our Planet,” Atlantic Monthly 273, 2 (1994), 44–76. For a recent critique of this approach, see Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New York: Crown Publishers, 2012). 9. Luis Martinez, The Algerian Civil War, 1990–1998, trans. by Jonathan Derrick (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); Stephen Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (New York: New York University Press, 1999); William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); David Keen, The Benefits of Famine: A Political Economy of Famine Relief in Southwestern Sudan, 1983–1989 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). Notes 160 VERSO RUNNING HEAD 160 Notes to Pages 2–3 10. Robert I. Rotberg, ed., When States Fail: Causes and Consequences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004); Barbara F. Walter and Jack L. Snyder, eds., Civil Wars, Insecurity, and International Intervention (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); William I. Zartman, Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995). For an exception, in which a theory of state failure is drawn from case studies, see William Reno, Warlord Politics and African States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998). 11. Messner, The Failed States Index 2011; Goldstone et al., Political Instability Task Force Report. 12. Gary King and Langche Zeng,“Improving Forecasts of State Failure,”World Politics 53 (2001), 627; Others have criticized these cross-national studies for not clearly defining state failure, aggregating highly diverse countries, and assessing factors as discrete variables without a well-developed conceptual framework. See Charles T. Call, “The Fallacy of the ‘Failed State,’” Third World Quarterly 29, 8 (2008), 1491–1507; Jack A. Goldstone, “Pathways to State Failure,” Conflict Management and Peace Science 25 (2008), 285–296; Tiffany O. Howard, “Revisiting State Failure: Developing a Causal Model of State Failure Based on Theoretical Insight,” Civil Wars 10, 2 (2008), 125–147. For an exception, in which a theory of state failure is constructed on the basis of interacting variables, see Robert H. Bates, When Things Fall Apart: State Failure in Late-Century Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 13. Stathis Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War,” American Political Science Review 97, 1 (2003), 75...

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