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Chapter 6: Cultivating Democracy
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Chapter 6 Cultivating Democracy Reconstructing Confucianism and Democracy Rather than the end of history in capitulation to Western liberal democracy, or the clash of Western and Confucian civilizations, I argue that Confucian societies are capable of an alternative future as Confucian democracies, different perhaps from Western liberal democracies but no less capable of living in peace with other civilizations. Contrary to skeptics such as Samuel Huntington, I contend that not only is a Confucian democracy not a contradiction in terms, but that it in many ways might compete with Western liberal models as an alternative ideal.Societies dominated by Confucianism in East Asia might have been resistant to democracy in the past, but the fault might not lie entirely with their Confucian culture. Philosophical and cultural resources within Confucianism could foster democracy,as understood by John Dewey.It would not be the liberal democracy that currently exists in the United States and Western Europe but a democracy based on a conception of individuals as inherently social, on a commitment to building a harmonious community in which every member contributes , participates, and benefits according to his or her abilities and needs. Building such a Confucian democracy precludes liberal neutrality that excludes questions regarding conceptions of the good life from the political arena. Both political life and ethical life suffer as a result of the exclusion of substantive value discourse from politics. In many societies today, shared values seldom guide political action except in the form of all too often unreasoning and fanatical partisan ideology. The political rhetoric of the day is not, nor can it ever be, in any sense “value free.” Where values are acknowledged as impor201 tant, what results often is not “discourse”—earnest efforts to exchange views aimed at resolving conflicts—but shouting matches, where neither side is listening , and the “victor” is decided by who shouts the loudest and is most adept at manipulating public opinion in the partisan struggle for power. The failure of communication is astounding and immensely frustrating in the face of modern communication technology that advances by leaps and bounds. In a Confucian ethico-political order, as in a Deweyan democracy, questions about conceptions of the good that should guide social and political actions are resolved in cooperative inquiry and institutionalized in ritual practices , in which all of those who are affected or who have something to contribute will speak out, listen, and understand. While it is the responsibility of everybody, including the government qua government, to inquire into conceptions of the good, no one conception should be imposed by any one group within society on the rest. Common goods must be constructed through ritual practice and cooperative inquiry in which each person participates according to his or her capacities. Such a community would be a democracy, with government of the people, by the people, and for the people. Freedom would be balanced with authority, so that everyone would have the best chance of personal fulfillment within a flourishing community. Stability and continuity in functioning interpersonal relations would be balanced with diversity and the capacity for change through individual creativity. In exploring the possibility of a Confucian democracy, I have reconstructed a Confucianism that opposes authoritarianism, that is at odds with the state orthodoxy of imperial China, which so often passes for Confucianism. While remaining as close to the texts as possible, I have interpreted early Confucianism in light of what I consider the needs of East Asian societies in their current historical contexts.In this regard,Dewey’s pragmatism proves illuminating.His understanding of what government by the people means, what democratic participation requires, and how cooperative inquiry should proceed facilitates the reconstruction of Confucianism in support of democracy. Confucianism often has taken social and political structures for granted, believing that it is sufficient to transform people through Confucian education, and that good people will constitute a good community, no matter what social or political structures exist. It can learn from Dewey’s philosophy, that organization involving structures that distribute power and resources is important to the outcome of social and political processes. Without effective organization, a public remains inchoate, and a society will not move toward democracy as a way of life. However, what kind of organization, what kind of social and political structures are required for a Confucian democracy,remains a question that must be answered within the specific context of each Confucian society. While I have focused on the reconstruction of Confucianism for Confucian...