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6 zyxwvutsrqpo Converso Authors, Chroniclers, and Polemicists One of the most interesting aspects of the converso phenomenon is the extent of the conversos' contribution to Spanish culture in the fifteenth century and later. The majority of the chronicles were written by conversos, as we already know. Literature was also dominated by them: poetry, drama, novels . Another area of great significance in the developing "humanism" of Renaissance Spain was the translation of classical works, again dominated by conversos. It is, in fact, no exaggeration to say simply that the history of Spanish literature in its "Golden Age" (fifteenth through seventeenth centuries ) is virtually the history of converso writers and descendants of conversos . Even Saint Teresa of Avila, patron saint of Spain and a major author, was a granddaughter of a converso, Juan Sanchez of Toledo (perhaps the one recorded in Leon Tello's documents of the Jews of Toledo). While considerable imagination is necessary to detect traces of any Jewish "influence" in her writings, this did not deter the Inquisition from suspecting her.1 Indeed, the only areas of cultural activity not totally dominated by conversos were religious writing, music, and art. While conversos or their descendants did make major contributions in theology and other religious writing (the Santa Maria family, San Juan de la Cruz, Juan de Avila, Benito Arias Montano, and others), this was still an area primarily of "old Christian " activity. In art, the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were the period of Spanish genius, almost equaling that of the Italian masters. In music, composers like Morales (also condemned by the Inquisition, but not for "Judaizing"), Vitoria, and others were unequaled, or certainly unexcelled , anywhere in Europe. Yet we know of only two conversos in the entire history of Spanish music, Juan del Encina and possibly Francisco de la Torre (ca. 1470—ca. 1520).2 This absence of conversos was certainly not because Jews themselves had been uninterested in music, for in addition to the purely liturgical music composed by Jews we know of several secular Jewish musi157 158 Converso Authors, Chroniclers, and Polemicists cians in medieval Spain. Why this interest did not carry over among conversos is unclear. With regard to artists, obviously no converso ever approached the glories of Velazquez, unless those who have argued that "el Greco" was of Jewish background can prove their case (in any event, he was not Spanish). Nevertheless , we know of some converso artists: Juan de Levi (1403) and his brother Guillen, Juan de Altabas, condemned by the Inquisition, and Pedro Salom (or Johan (^alom), already mentioned in connection with converso bookbinders.3 However, when we turn to literature the situation is quite otherwise. As noted, virtuallyzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA all of the important writers, poets, and dramatists were either themselves conversos or of immediate converso descent. Many Hispanists , indeed, have claimed to detect a "converso mentality" in the literature. Lacking any precise definition, this term seems to smack at least of romanticism , if not worse, and is largely nonsense. It would seem that whatever is found reflected in Spanish literature of the period is simply labeled "converso mentality." What would be required is a detailed analysis, so far not attempted, of the writers and their work as a whole group, with a view to determining what, if any, Jewish or "converso" influences may have been at work. Amador de los Rios made the suggestive remark that a certain Hebrew style may be detected in the Spanish writing of some converso authors (see his chapters on some of them in his Estudios), which suggestion has never been followed up by philologists thoroughly trained both in Hebrew and in late medieval Spanish literary style. As to "converso mentality," if there are any peculiar specific traits, this would have to be established by careful comparison with the few non-converso literary works written in the same period.4 Until such work has been attempted, it is best to abandon such meaningless generalizations. The phenomenon of converso dominance in the writing of chronicles is no less surprising than in belles lettres. Jews in the medieval period in general , and in Spain in particular, were singularly uninterested in historical writing, and the reading of chronicles was generally considered a waste of time or worse. The very few that were produced were self-serving polemics or of the "lachrymose" kind, detailing massacres, etc. Yet suddenly we find converso historians demonstrating great insight and commendable literary style in their chronicles; certainly there can be no question of "Jewish influence...

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