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55 Chapter Two National versus Modern: The 1950s In twentieth-century Chinese architecture, nationalism and modernism appeared simultaneously. Traditional Chinese architecture of the timber structure system had been in existence for millennia. By the Tang dynasty, it had reached maturity and produced large-scale halls and towers of pure wooden construction. During the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), this system was standardized and recorded in the official construction manual, Treatise on Architectural Methods (Yingzao fashi), formally published in 1103. The following Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties largely followed the Treatise tradition in the construction of imperial monuments. Minor structural and stylistic adjustments and terminological variations in these later periods can be found in the Qing dynasty Construction Principles (Gongchengzuofa zeli) and the practice in the Suzhou area,1 as well as occasional combinations or juxtapositions with other architectural traditions (for instance, Tibetan or Islamic architecture) from the peripheral regions of China proper.2 European architecture was introduced into China as early as the fourteenth century by early missionaries. Christian churches were constructed in some major Chinese cities, and European-style buildings were sometimes constructed to fulfill the curiosity of the emperors. The most famous examples of these early structures were the Western buildings of the eighteenth century in the Yuanmingyuan.3 These occasional foreign buildings, however, were not significant enough to trigger the development of a concept of national style to differentiate the two architectural systems. For most Chinese, who called their realm “all under heaven” (tianxia) and considered their way of life the only civilized culture in the world, these foreign buildings were nothing but curios from a barbarian culture. It was not until China was repeatedly defeated by foreign powers after the Opium Wars that the Chinese started to regard Western cultures as counterparts of their own. For the first time, Chinese culture became, for the Chinese, one of the many cultures in the world. The time was ripe for Chinese nationalism. Tellingly, Chinese Classical Revivalism (Zhongguo Chuantong Fuxing) in architecture was invented by Westerners. Around 1920, some European and American 56 Chapter Two architects practicing in Beijing experimented with combining the big roofs they had seen in the Forbidden City and other ancient Chinese monuments with multilayered concrete structures, and initiated the exploration of the Chinese Classical Revival style. Among these pioneers were Henry Killam Murphy, Adelbert Gresnight, and the design company Shattuck and Hussey.4 At the same time, the first generation of Chinese architects trained abroad came back to China, opened the earliest architectural businesses run by Chinese, and started their design practices. They brought back a variety of architectural styles then currently practiced in Europe, America, and Japan, including classical revivalism,5 art nouveau, and functionalist modernism. These young Chinese architects also brought back foreign systems of design and architectural education, such as the American version of Beaux-Arts and the German Bauhaus.6 Some tried to combine traditional Chinese architectural motifs with multistory concrete structures in order to create a contemporary national style that was different from both ancient Chinese and modern Western architecture. The value of nationalism in twentieth-century Chinese architecture was soon recognized by the ruling Nationalist Party (Guomindang). In 1927 Nanjing was designated the capital of the Republic of China. During the ten years from 1927 to 1937,7 a national style of architecture was officially adopted under the new name Original Chinese Forms (Zhongguo Guyou Zhi Xingshi) for use in the construction of the new Nationalist capital. American engineer Ernest Payson Goodrich and architect Henry Murphy were employed by the Chinese government to serve as foreign consultants.8 Chinese architects also participated in the exploration of national style in the construction of the capital and in their practices in other cities. It was not accidental that both Chinese Classical Revivalism in the 1920s and Original Chinese Forms in the 1930s resorted to large sloping tiled roofs with upturned eaves as a convenient sign of Chineseness in architecture. Such roofs used to mimic traditional Chinese architecture in modern times are referred to in this book as “big roof,” following the habitual Chinese expression dawuding. As the most prominent part in the façade of an individual structure, the roof in ancient China was more symbolic than functional. Its shape and color indicated the status of the building and the rank of its owner or sponsor. During the Qing dynasty, the roof form known as wudian (pure hip roof) was reserved for imperial palaces and other imperially sponsored projects, including...

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