The Northern Region of Korea: History, Identity, and Culture

2. Chosŏn-Qing Relations and the Society of P’yŏngan Province During the Late Chosŏn Period

INTRoDuCTIoN Envoys traveling between Chosŏn (1392–1910) and Qing (1644–1912) in the late Chosŏn period moved along a route between Seoul and Beijing that passed through P’yŏngan Province. The remaining seven provinces of the Chosŏn Dynasty did not participate in the tributary missions as actively as P’yŏngan did. The people of the southern provinces were largely excluded from relations with China, and although a portion of Hamgyŏng Province had trade relations with China, this area did not include the important routes of envoys and merchants. Kyŏnggi and Hwanghae provinces were also on the route of the embassies, but given the short distances over which envoys traveled in these provinces, this activity was of relatively modest importance. P’yŏngan Province had been a strategically important region that was the first line of defense against invasion from northern peoples. After Chosŏn was defeated by the Later Jin1 (1616–1636), however, the military importance of the region was greatly reduced. By the time the defense system was restored, Chosŏn and Qing had entered into a long period of peaceful relations . Thus in the late Chosŏn period the role of P’yŏngan Province in diplomatic and commercial affairs grew in importance while its military functions diminished. The people of P’yŏngan Province had to bear enormous burdens in providing support for diplomatic and trade relations with the Qing, but these very burdens also presented opportunities for regional economic growth. Residents of the province took advantage of their geopolitical location and were able to accumulate wealth through trade and commercial enterprise. Their economic 2 Chosŏn-Qing Relations and the Society of p’yŏngan province During the late Chosŏn period kwon naehyun Kwon Naehyun 38 resources consequently supported cultural growth. This in turn frustrated the P’yŏngan elite because they were politically and socially discriminated against by the central elite in the capital (see the discussion in Chapters 3 and 4). This chapter examines the effects of the development of Chosŏn-Qing relations on the society of P’yŏngan Province. What were the regional burdens imposed by the diplomatic and trade relations between the two countries , and what did the P’yŏngan people receive in return? How did these diplomatic and trade dynamics change the regional economy and the lives of the people? The answers shed light on the nature of P’yŏngan society and its connections to Chosŏn-Qing relations, providing insight into the background of the rebellions of the early nineteenth century. CHoSŏN-QINg RElATIoNS AND THEIR IMpACT oN p’yŏNgAN pRovINCE Chosŏn faced China across its northern border, and it was P’yŏngan Province that was most affected by its relations with the Chinese dynasties and the Jurchen tribal people. The expansion of the Later Jin and two subsequent Manchu invasions in the early seventeenth century placed great military and financial burdens on the region. Chosŏn’s relations with the Manchus were based on disdain, distrust, and military confrontation, especially after King Injo (r. 1623–1649) and his supporters took power in 1623, resulting in Chosŏn’s humiliating subjugation to the Qing in 1636. From the time the Qing defeated Chosŏn to the time it occupied Beijing in 1644, the Manchu court sent more envoys to Chosŏn than in any other period, in an effort to maintain surveillance there. As it came to rule over the Chinese mainland, the Qing loosened its controls over Chosŏn, though the frequency of Qing embassies remained high into the early eighteenth century. Chosŏn could not but respond in kind by dispatching frequent envoys to the Qing court as well. The situation had begun to change by the middle of the eighteenth century . The Chosŏn court saw that the Qing would not fall easily and had little reason to again invade Chosŏn territory. Increasingly confident in its control of the mainland and the much-enhanced state power, the Qing court maintained only a minor interest in Chosŏn affairs and did not even object to Chosŏn’s attempts to strengthen its own defenses. This marked the beginning of a very long period of peace between the two countries, and the fre- Chosŏn-Qing Relations and the Society of p’yŏngan province 39 quency of embassies between...