Notes
371 Notes Introduction 1. The term seems to have been first used by Frederic Wakeman, Jr., in “High Ch’ing, 1683–1839.” Wakeman, however, draws on the earlier essay by Ho Ping-ti, “The Significance of the Ch’ing Period in Chinese History.” 2. For an exchange of the roles of government and society in Qing growth, see Rawski, “Presidential Address”; and Ho, “In Defense of Sinicization,” 193–94. This argument builds on a suggestion offered by Wakeman in the concluding pages of his magisterial study of the Qing conquest, The Great Enterprise, vol. 2: 1126. 3. Hucker, A Dictionary of Official Titles, 255. I will follow Hucker’s practice of referring to xunfu in the Ming as “grand coordinators” and in the Qing as “governors,” although I recognize that the terms “governor” and “province” have rather different associations in european history than they do in Chinese history. 4. On Ming governors, see Zhang Zhelang, Mingdai xunfu yanjiu, esp. 233–46. 5. Zito, Of Body and Brush. 6. Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind, 17–18. Here I don’t mean to suggest that the Qing were savage or unsophisticated. Rather, I mean to emphasize that provinces evolved not in response to an unfolding metahistorical narrative but through a series of small contingent choices. 7. Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, 118. 8. G. William Skinner, “Cities and the Hierarchy of Local Systems,” in The City in Late Imperial China, 281–82. 9. G. William Skinner, “Regional urbanization in China,” in The City in Late Imperial China, 218. 10. The “tail” of Zhili and the boundaries of the lower yangzi valley provinces are discussed in chapters 5 and 6. 11. Zhili was not formally a province after 1723. When Xinjiang was made a province, it was listed after Gansu; Gansu existed as a province only until 1757 (see chapter 3 of this volume). Sichuan existed as a Qing province until 1767. Da Qing huidian, 5:4a–5b (29). This is also the order in which prefectural and county officials are listed in DQHD, juan 5, and the order in which provincial military establishments are enumerated in DQHD, juan 43–45 (387–420) and elaborated in DQHDSL, vol. 7. 12. The regional literature is too extensive to be presented in a single note. For detailed descriptions by region, see the notes for chapters 6–9 of this volume. 13. See the reflections on primordial attachments and provincial narratives in Duara, Rescuing History, 177–204, esp. 178–79. 14. Particularly useful for this volume are the imperially ordered gazetteers prepared by provincial governors in the late yongzheng reign. These were copied into Complete Library 372 Notes to Introduction of the Four Treasuries (Si ku quan shu) and reviewed in Annotated Catalog of the “Complete Library of the Four Treasuries,” Compiled by Imperial Command (Qin ding Si ku quan shu zong mu ti yao), 68:1481–86. It should be noted that, unlike county gazetteers, provincial gazetteers provided little information that was not available elsewhere, and much of the information in provincial publications suffered from redaction. The volumes have some value as aids for finding information whose accuracy may require confirmation by other sources, but they speak more vividly of the provincial images the dynasty sought to portray. 15. See Rowe, Saving the World. 16. Craig Clunas has more appropriately termed these materials “necrologies.” Fruitful Sites, 104. I continue to call them “biographies” here for expository convenience. 17. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 55. 18. In this regard, Qing governors were very different from Ming grand coordinators, the vast majority of whom held the jinshi degree. In the Ming, grand coordinators were clearly civilian officials, often poised against the eunuch officials who controlled the military establishment. In the Qing, there were no eunuch appointees in the provinces, and governors had to take on many of the functional tasks of maintaining territorial order. 19. unfortunately, biographies are not specific enough about age to permit more refined demographic analysis. Age is given in perhaps one-fourth of the cases, but in most instances, one can know only the date on which a governor took civil service exams or entered government service, and in many cases, the date is only an approximation. 20. Insofar as the history of gubernatorial administration displays a range of actions undertaken by a fairly well-documented group, it differs from most existing histories. Both Chinese and Western historians have written about exceptional individuals—men such as Cao yin, yuan Mei, Zhang Xuecheng, and...
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