The Rebel Den of Nung Trí Cao: Loyalty and Identity along the Sino-Vietnamese Frontier

Bibliography

Bibliography Notes The Chinese and Vietnamese sources examined for this book are by no means purely objective, contextless accounts of relations between the two courts. While Song period records of Sino-Vietnamese tributary activity are still available today, the earliest extant Vietnamese accounts of tenth-century historical events date from the fourteenth century. These accounts, compiled and edited under Trfin dynastic (1225-1400) patronage, reflect intellectual concerns that were quite different from the concerns oftenth- and eleventh-century Vietnamese leaders. Therefore, I include an introduction to these accounts in the following brief discussion of the variety of historical sources used in this book. I also indicate the historiographical emphases and orientations modem Chinese and Vietnamese historians inherited from their scholarly predecessors. The twenty-four imperial "standard histories" (zhengshi) make up the core ofpremodern Chinese historical learning and are the foundation upon which subsequent generations of scholars formed their understanding of peoples along the frontiers. The organization of these histories owes its origins to Sima Qian's (154-86 BeE) Records ofthe Historian (Shiji), a project started by the author's father, Sima Tan (d. 110 BeE), and completed around 87 BeE. The "annals-biography" (jizhuanti) arrangement ofmaterials, in which a court-centered chronological history is presented first and is followed by biographical sketches and short monographs that illustrate previous points, became the model for all subsequent projects deemed standard histories.I Methods for compiling these histories did not remain constant. Prior to 630, works later designated standard histories were efforts of a single individual or, at most, two or three scholars. Following the early Tang reorganization of the "historiography bureau" (shiguan), standard histories gradually became court-sanctioned group projects that reflected the aims and aspirations of the subsequent dynasty under 244 Bibliography 245 which they were compiled. Often assembled quite rapidly by teams of scholars at the outset of a new dynastic order, the bulk of the sources for these histories were documents collected by the historiography bureau of the previous dynasty. Materials that did not support and illustrate court-centered annals sections were often eliminated or deemphasized. Although standard histories had become ponderously detailed records of court institutions and practices by the time the Official History of the Song Dynasty (Songshi) was compiled, they reflected the central court's interest in clarifying its actions for others and did not attempt to elucidate the perspectives of officials on the periphery. While efforts at fairness and editorial objectivity had been notable elements of Chinese historiography since Sima Qian's precedent-setting enterprise, so, too, were the practices ofmoral commentary and "teaching by example." The most influential of such histories after the early Song is The Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government (Zizhi tongjian), by Sima Guang (1019-1086). This project was completed between the years 1067 and 1084 and arguably began with an order from the Song emperor Yingzong (r. 1064-67).2 Sima Guang has often been labeled a political conservative, owing to his opposition to the implementation of Wang Anshi's new policies, and the professed purpose for this history's compilation certainly supports a politically conservative outlook. Sima Guang and his assistants produced their history to serve as a guide for central court policy and the moral training of its leadership. His historical narrative has been described as "a history book of practical lessons," using recorded examples of statecraft to guide the behavior of contemporary rulers and officials. As an early proponent of the ideology later termed "Neo-Confucianism," Sima Guang sought to read into past court events moral portents for the empire's fortunes. Another important Song source for this project is the Draft for a Continuation of "The Comprehensive Mirrorfor Aid in Government" (Xu Zizhi tongjian changbian), by Li Tao (1115-1184). An admirer of Sima Guang's work, Li Tao sought to continue his project into the Northern Song. However, he was as concerned about presenting a complete and unprejudiced picture of the historical records as he was interested in extracting moral lessons from these events. Therefore, Li Tao and his staff often included full drafts of memorials and court edicts, rather than 246 Bibliography the short excerpts more common to histories compiled in his day. Li Tao's efforts ensured that a greater amount of primary sources would be available for future study. Although commentary by this Song historian often ended with moralistic judgments, his method of study provided subsequent generations with...