From Enslavement to Environmentalism: Politics on a Southern African Frontier

Notes

NOTES INTRODUCTION 1. A small number of efforts toward boundary making had occurred beforehand . Yet, many of these-most notably the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) between Spain and Portugal-relied upon "table surveys" in the most disconnected sense. Marking the landscape was and is quite a different matter. 2. Alfred Crosby (1986:2) coined this term. 3. This was the case except, arguably, as regards the westward expansion of the United States before the Mexican-American war cleared the path to the Pacific. 4. In using the shorthand term white, I am here committing the error of projectingtwentieth -centurycategories back into adifferent cultural milieu. As Robert Ross (1981:231-32) writes, seventeenth-, eighteenth-, and, to an extent, nineteenthcenturySouth Africa exhibited asurprisingdegree ofethnicdiversity, mixture, and fluidity. For this reason, I avoid the term Afrikaner except with respect to current migrations from South Africa to Mozambique. The introduction to part 1 further discusses my usage of the term white. 5. Basicworks includeCrais (1992), EldredgeandMorton (1994), and Ross (1981). 6. The introduction to part 2 reviews this literature. 7. Dane Kennedy (1987:11l) refers to the healthier upland clinlateas amajor factor in white settlement and development in Kenya. 8. Katz (1998:47); d. Watts (2000:44-46). 9. This terminology has provoked intense controversy regarding the relationship between New World chattel slavery and subjugation within Africa. Without entering that debate, I follow Kopytoff and Miers (1977:5-7), Larson (2000:6-23), and Patterson (1982) in adopting inclusive language that respects the flexibility and mutability of African social relations. 203 NOTES TO PAGES 6-17 10. The phrase derives from Meillassoux (1991). 11. In the early twentieth century, Machiwenyika recalled a quarrel between Maungwe and Manyika people cultivating on opposite sides of a watercourse just to the east of present-day Mutare (Jason Tafara Machiwenyika, "History of Manyika," Shona/Manyikaand Englishversions, Lesson101,historical manuscripts MA 14/1/1 and MA 14/1/2, National Archives of Zimbabwe [NAZD. Therefore, I mean something much more specific-involving solid boundaries-than the loose sense in which Maxwell (1999:12, 21, 232) refers to the "territorial" basis of precolonial chieftaincy. 12. Quotedandapparentlytranslatedby Carin Vijtbuizen (2002:176). Vijtbuizen describes the ritual as "ancient." 13. Lobengula to Khama. Parliamentary Papers, C.5237, 59, 1March 1887. I am grateful to Terence Ranger (1999:42) for this reference. 14. Afrikanersalso migrated to Angolaand Kenya (Clarence-Smith1975; Groen 1974:42). 15. Kennedy (1987:2-3) includescolonial Kenya-before the postindependence white exodus-in this characterization. 16. Regarding Southern Africa, see L. Thompson and Lamar (1981b:l7-18) and Wilmsen (1989a:1-2). 17. R Gordon (1989:147-48); Hiatt (1989:101); Wilmsen (1989a:I-2). Had they been available, findings on the "anthropogenic landscapes" of shifting cultivators would have challenged that view (cf. Fairhead and Leach 1996). 18. Carter (1988:64) elaborates on an account presented in Corris (1968:53). 19. Kain and Baigent (1992:344; emphasis in original). Cf. Noyes (1992:275-84) and Scott (1998:44-45). 10. Colson (1971:196); Cheater (1990); d. Ranger (1983)· 21. The ambiguity and flexibility of African systems of land tenure have insulated them considerably from commoditization. See Berry (1993, 1997). 22. For a discussion ofthis complex evolution, see Murphy (1996). 23. Thongchai (1994); d. Vandergeest and Peluso (1995). 24. They have seized much more in the realm of germplasm (cf. Kloppenburg 1988). 25. The foundational treatises on "limits to growth" and "sustainable development " are, respectively, Meadows et al. (1972) (a report ofthe Club of Rome) and World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) (known as the "Bruntland report"). 26. James Fairhead and Melissa Leach (1996) assisted them in this realization. 27. Thephrasesderivefrom, respectively, O'Connor (1993:16) and Katz (1998:47). 28. Hence, Britons and Rhodesians often referred to the area and points south as "Gazaland." 29. As the introduction to part 3explains, I use the term native in this context advisedly. 204 NOTES TO PAGES 17-24 30. Virtually everywhere is not equivalent to everywhere: Mauritania, the overland slave trade in Sudan, slave smuggling in the Bight of Benin, and the bonding of African andAsianlaborin theUnitedStatesallattesttothepersistenceofunfreelabor. PART 1 I COLONIZATION, FAILED AND SUCCESSFUL 1. The two powers had delimited the border-a preliminary, more approximate step-in 1891 (Grant 1893; Leverson 1893). For a discussion of work on the border delineation slightly to the north, see Schmidt (1998). 2. On abroadergeographical scale,see FrederickCooper andAnn Stoler's (1989) work...