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134 Chapter 8 Exile in Holland Exile Physically forcing political foes into exile has been a tactic utilized so frequently throughout Latin American history that it has profoundly affected the evolution of the region’s politics. The very term “Latin America” was coined by exiles in Paris during the mid-nineteenth century, highlighting the crucial role that exiles have played in developing regional identity. Latin America’s brutal dictatorships in the 1970s created a flood of exiles from countries as disparate as Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Bolivia, Peru, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. They often escaped not only by fleeing to other countries in the region or to the United States, but also to Canada and Europe. From the 1960s to the 1980s, their principal European havens were Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, France, Germany, Holland, Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal. Most were political refugees; inevitably some took advantage of the political persecution to seek better economic opportunities elsewhere, although the dividing line between political and economic causes for migration is virtually impossible to determine. For those of European origin, they were often returning to places their grandparents or great-grandparents had emigrated from generations before. Many Southern Cone refugees were highly educated, were fluent in a second European language, and had previously traveled abroad. These individuals had a far easier time finding suitable work and living situations than exiles from poorer, less Westernized countries. Some refugees were like Félix: working class and poor, with few job, language, or cultural skills appropriate for their new homes. Their varied experiences in exile were shaped in no small part by a combination of factors: the country that expelled them; the dynamics of the country that received them; and their ethnicity, gender, and economic class. In some countries, like Félix’s experience in Holland shows, they received considerable support from a government willing to facilitate their adaptation. But in other countries, like the 135 United States, with fewer social and support services, they often faced poverty and exclusion, although they frequently had the advantage that they could incorporate themselves into larger existing Latino communities. Many suffered what is now recognized as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from their experiences of torture and fleeing for their lives, often leaving families and friends to a horrendous fate at the hands of the dictators. Exile meant the loss of their roots on the one hand and new possibilities for education and social advancement on the other. Many struggled with the loss or alteration of their sense of identity and purpose, as well as isolation and a profound guilt at their inability to adapt successfully to the country that often had saved their lives. Others struggled to overcome a sense of feeling like victims in their host society. Some felt tremendous relief at their escape from dictatorship; but for many, exile was an insurmountable tragedy. In a strange land, some discovered a sense of strong national identity for the first time, as well as a shared identity with other exiles. Exiles are often cast into the role of representing their country in their new home, but inevitably they are also shaped by the society they find themselves in. New challenges arise when their children grow up as French or Canadian, rather than as Brazilians or Salvadorans. Félix’s experience in Holland touches on many aspects of the realities of Latin American political refugees from the 1960s to the 1980s: the often complicated relationships among communities of exiles from different countries and of varying political tendencies; the importance of continued political activism in conjunction with local solidarity and political activists; the often profound differences between exiles of different backgrounds; the importance of support and personal determination; and for those who returned home, their reintegration and often important role in democratization (Hite 2000; Roniger and Green 2007). Thepoliticalissuescurrentintheirhostsocietiesalsoaffectedtheirperspectives: many returned home from North America or Europe with different views on gender, sexuality, and race; the importance of protecting the natural environment; and the role of left political parties and the various strains of Marxism, as is clearly seen by Félix’s transformation. They brought these changes in viewpoint back as they engaged as political activists in their countries once again. We landed at Frankfurt’s enormous airport after a long, tiring flight. I had never seen anything so large and modern in my life and was tremendously impressed. A Dutch government representative was waiting for us at the gate.As we had to change airlines, the representative...

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