Aquinas's Ethics: Metaphysical Foundations, Moral Theory, and Theological Context

Introduction

Introduction St. Thomas Aquinas (1224/25–1274) is a towering figure in the history of philosophy; few scholars can rival either the breadth or the depth of his intellectual pursuits. Above and beyond his independent works (including, most famously, the Summa theologiae and the Summa contra gentiles), Aquinas also wrote extensive commentaries on most of Aristotle’s treatises and on numerous books of the Bible. In addition, he participated actively in the intellectual debates of his day, writing strongly against philosophical and theological doctrines that he thought were erroneous . His scholarly accomplishments have been renowned in philosophical and theological circles for over 750 years. Aquinas’s reputation for brilliance is somewhat dulled, however, by his reputation for tedious prose and meticulous attention to detail. In general , his style of careful argumentation, set in the question-and-answer format that epitomizes high medieval scholarship, is often caricatured as concerned primarily with abstract questions, such as how many angels can dance on the head of a pin.1 Yet, as we will argue in this book, to think of Aquinas’s philosophical project—and, in particular, his ethics—as irrelevant to modern life is to miss its central point. When one takes the time to fit the different pieces of his thought together, one is rewarded with a richly integrated picture of the genuinely happy human life. 1 Why is it, after all, that two people can live on the same street, work at the same job, and yet one person experiences constant frustration and anxiety in his life while the other flourishes? Is it better to become a marine biologist or a day-care worker? Can anyone justify becoming a professional musician when people are starving throughout the world? How are we to think about the ultimate purpose of our lives—how are we, for example, to balance personal fulfillment with the demands of living in community? Aquinas’s account of human nature and human flourishing turns out to provide a meaningful framework in which to answer pressing life questions. While recognizing that each of us possesses unique talents and shortcomings, he describes a general picture of the flourishing life that proves as provocative, challenging, and attractive today as it first did over seven hundred years ago. Our central goal in this book is to present this rich picture to readers who lack the time or technical expertise to undertake the project themselves. Aquinas develops his account of the genuinely happy life within a complex metaphysical and theological framework; thus, a large part of our task will be to examine his understanding of what human beings are and how and why they act. With this foundation in place, we’ll be able to properly appreciate his conception of the good life human beings are meant to live. Aquinas’s own life underscores his belief that scholarly pursuits can—and perhaps should—have practical as well as abstract or contemplative results. When his politically-minded family pressured him to join the highly respected and well-established Benedictine monastic order, Aquinas did not object to the idea of a religious career in and of itself. Instead of choosing the Benedictines, however, he insisted on joining the recently formed Dominican order, a religious order with considerably less prestige and a radical social mission. Founded in 1217 by St. Dominic, a leader with a strong desire to revitalize the church’s mission and to rescue it from religious apathy and power-hungry clergy, the Dominican order dedicated itself to a life that combined quiet prayer and contemplation with active Christian service. Like the Franciscans (another recently founded religious order), the Dominicans served as itinerant teachers and preachers, explicitly pursuing intellectual formation for the 2 Aquinas’s Ethics sake of spiritual formation. By joining this order, Aquinas was consciously choosing to integrate the work of his intellectual and spiritual contemplation with an active life of preaching and teaching. Contemporary readers can see this integration in Aquinas’s developed account of human virtue. Instead of focusing purely on a theoretical understanding of the nature of a good moral character, Aquinas also provides practical instruction for living well. When he discusses virtues and vices in the Summa theologiae, for example, he addresses not just abstract questions, such as how we should define virtue, but also practical issues, such as how to show gratitude toward someone who does us a favor we are too poor...