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Acknowledgments
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Acknowledgments This book grew out of my initial research into the causes of the major race riots that took place in the United States during May–October 1919 and the governmental responses those disorders produced. As I investigated the turmoil of American race relations during what James Weldon Johnson called “the Red Summer,” it became obvious that critical shifts in AfricanAmerican political consciousness and the government’s position on the “race problem” had occurred during, rather than after, World War I. For valued advice and assistance in using their collections on this period, I would like to thank the staff of the National Archives, the Library of Congress Manuscript Division, the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center at Howard University (particularly Esme Bhan), the University of Massachusetts Library, the Houghton Library at Harvard University, the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University, the New York Public Library, and Strathclyde University Library (particularly Hamish Good). This book could not have been completed, alongside self-in®icted administrative burdens, without the support and encouragement of several colleagues, past and present, including Bernard Aspinwall, Tom Devine, Conan Fischer, Graham Cummings, Gordon Jackson, Jay Kleinberg, Tom Tomlinson, and Barrie Walters. The History Department and the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Strathclyde University granted me valuable study leave for a semester. I continue to be grateful to Ted Ranson of Aberdeen University for introducing me to American history in the ¤rst place, for overseeing my early work in this ¤eld, and for the example that he has set in his commitment to students. I wish to thank the publishers of the Journal of American History (OAH) and the Journal of Policy History (Pennsylvania State University Press) for permission to reprint parts of chapter 5. Above all, I thank my wife and my boys, to whom the book is dedicated. ...