Colonialism by Proxy: Hausa Imperial Agents and Middle Belt Consciousness in Nigeria

Notes

227 Notes Introduction 1. Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010). 2. Adiele Afigbo, The Warrant Chief: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria (London: Longman , 1972); Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996). 3. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject. 4. Examples of influential works that assume a default to indirect rule at the moment of conquest include Mamdani’s Citizen and Subject: Afigbo’s Warrant Chiefs; and Jason C. Myers ’s Indirect Rule in South Africa: Tradition, Modernity, and the Costuming of Political Power (Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2008). 5. Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 8. 6. Ibid., 14. 7. Achille Mbembe, On the Postcolony (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 26, 31. 8. See Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Deloz, Disorder Works: Disorder as Political Instrument (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999). 9. Charles Lindsay Temple, Native Races and Their Rulers: Sketches and Studies of Official Life and Administrative Problems in Nigeria (Cape Town: Argus, 1918), chap. 1. One could argue that Temple supplied the racial and civilizational classifications that constituted the bedrock of Hausa-Fulani subcolonialism, for it was he who enunciated the history of Northern Nigeria in terms of civilized, light-skinned migrants from northeast Africa displacing, and ultimately dominating, so-called negroid autochthons. 10. Frederick Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1965); Frederick Lugard, Political Memoranda, Revision of Instructions to Political Officers on Subjects Chiefly Political and Administrative 1913–1918 (London: Frank Cass, 1970); Tony Kaye, “Civilizing (the) Chiefs: Islam and Indirect Rule in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast Colony” (MA Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, 2011); Marion Johnson, Salaga Papers (Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, 1965). 11. Catherine Hall, Civilizing Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 18. 12. P. Daley, “Ethnicity and Political Violence in Africa: The Challenges to the Burundi State,” Political Geography 25 (n.d.): 657–679; Bruce Berman, “Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism,” African Affairs 97, no. 388 (1998): 305–341. 13. Okwudiba Nnoli, ed., Ethnic Conflicts in Africa (Dakar, Senegal: Codesria Book Series, 2000); Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnicity and Development in Nigeria (Aldershot, England: Avebury, 1995); Jean Marie Allman, The Quills of the Porcupine: Asante Nationalism in an Emergent Ghana (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993). 14. Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001). 15. Ibid., Introduction and ch. 1. 16. James S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), 194. 228 | Notes to pages 7–12 17. Emmy Godwin Irobi, “Ethnic Conflict Management in Africa: A Comparative Case Study of Nigeria and South Africa,” Beyond Intractability, 2005, http://www.beyondintracta bility.org/casestudy/irobi-ethnic. 18. Thomas J. Davis and Azubike Kalu-Nwiwu, “Education, Ethnicity and National Integration in the History of Nigeria: Continuing Problems of Africa’s Colonial Legacy,” Journal of Negro History 86, no. 1 (January 1, 2001): 1–11. 19. Lloyd A. Fallers, Bantu Bureaucracy: A Century of Political Evolution Among the Basoga of Uganda (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); A. D. Roberts, “The Sub-Imperialism of the Baganda,” Journal of African History 3, no. 3 (January 1, 1962): 435–450; Twaddle, Kakungulu and the Creation of Uganda. 20. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, 39, 41. 21. Simon Gikandi, Maps of Englishness: Writing Identity in the Culture of Colonialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 34–36. 22. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, 43. 23. The term “middle figures” is used by Nancy Hunt to capture the functional in-betweenness of African colonial brokers. See Nancy Rose Hunt, A Colonial Lexicon of Birth Ritual, Medicalization, and Mobility in the Congo (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999); Quotation from Benjamin Nicholas Lawrance, Emily Osborne, and Richard Roberts, eds., Intermediaries , Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 4. 24. These anxieties, familiar to historians of colonial Africa, turn on the declared and undeclared imperative of casting African colonial actors and subjects as resisters or collaborators and European colonizers as omniscient hegemons determining the actions and agendas of Africans. For illuminating analyses of the constraints and anxieties of nationalist historiography , see Frederick Cooper, “Conflict and Connections: Rethinking Colonial...