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3. The Establishment of the Macedonian Front
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The defense of Serbia in 1914 was a rare early success for the Entente. Despite having deflected three Austro-Hungarian invasions, Serbia remained vulnerable to additional attacks from the Central Powers. Manpower and resources, depleted in the fighting in 1912–13, had scarcely recovered from the combats against Austria-Hungary. Meanwhile typhus and cholera, which originally had developed during the fighting in 1912 and had spread through military movement and refugees, proliferated throughout the country. Serbia’s Entente allies paid little initial attention to the situation in southeastern Europe. The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war on the side of the Central Alliance on 14 November 1914 and the military woes of Russia on the Eastern Front were far more significant. In an effort to deal with both of these issues, the Entente, at the instigation of British First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, undertook a cam3 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MACEDONIAN FRONT 37 the Establishment of the Macedonian front paign to open a warm-water route to Russia and to force the Ottomans out of the war. After an initial attempt to force the Dardanelles, the water connection between the Mediterranean and the Black Seas, failed, the Entente landed British, French, and ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand) forces on the Gallipoli Peninsula on 25 April 1915 in an effort to clear the Ottoman defenses. Because of Russian misgivings, the Entente declined Prime Minister Venizelos’s offer of three Greek divisions for the operation. The Russians did not want to share control of Constantinople with the Greeks or with the British and French. The near seizure of the old imperial city by the Bulgarians in November 1912 had made the Russians skittish. In any event, neither the Germanophile Greek King Constantine nor the Greek army had little interest in participating in this venture.1 Consequently, as a result of the failure of his pro-Entente policy, Venizelos stepped down as prime minister on 6 March 1915. The Gallipoli venture caused both warring sides to increase their attentions on southeastern Europe. For the Central Powers, logistical support for the Ottomans became critical. Serbia, astride the land route between Berlin and Constantinople, was a major obstacle for the passage of soldiers and supplies. Also its presence on the southern flank of Austria-Hungary threatened the Habsburg Empire, which was already weakened not only by losses in the Serbian campaigns but also by enormous casualties in the fighting against the Russian army in Galicia. German chief of staff Erich von Falkenhayn stated in May 1915, “It is most important that we gain Bulgaria quickly and at any price, because the key to the entire situation (in Eastern Europe) lies in Sofia.”2 In July 1915, with the Western Front stabilized and with the immediate danger to Austria-Hungary thwarted, the Germans decided to eliminate the Serbian problem. An important consideration for the success of this operation was the attitude of Bulgaria. This caused the AustroHungarians and Germans to renew their efforts to attract Bulgaria to the Central Alliance. After the renewal of fighting in southeastern Europe in 1914, the Bulgarians entertained offers from both sides. Although the personal inclinations of the Austro-German Tsar Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and German-educated Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov lay with the Central Powers, both recognized that the renewal of fighting in southeastern Eu- [3.236.240.48] Project MUSE (2024-03-29 05:36 GMT) Balkan breakthrough 38 rope afforded Bulgaria the opportunity to gain redress for the losses of the Balkan Wars. At the same time they paid close attention to the course of the war, especially in Eastern Europe. The advantage of Bulgaria for the Entente was clear. A Bulgarian assault on the Chataldzha lines, perhaps abetted by Russian action in the Black Sea, could result in the fall of the Ottoman capital and in the ultimate success of the Gallipoli operation. The long-sought communications and logistical channels between Russia and its Western allies would be opened. In the spring of 1915, during the Russian advances in Galicia and the British and French landings in Gallipoli, the Bulgarian government adopted a positive stance toward the Entente and considered intervention on the side of the Entente. The Entente, however, could not meet Bulgaria’s price of Macedonia. Most of Macedonia had been in Serbian hands since the Treaty of Bucharest of August 1913. Because Serbia controlled Macedonia , the Entente’s options for its disposal were limited. The Serbs were not...