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NOTES ∞. Motorization in the United States and Other Industrial Nations 1. See Jeffrey R. Kenworthy and Felix B. Laube, An International Sourcebook of Automobile Dependence in Cities, 1960–1990 (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1999). 2. George M. Smerk, ‘‘Public Transportation and the City,’’ in Public Transportation , 2d ed., ed. George Gray and Lester Hoel (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1992), 8–15. 3. Bureau of the Census, Street and Electric Railways, 1902 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902). 4. Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), 49, 84. 5. T. K. Derry and T. I. Williams, A Short History of Technology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960), 370ff. 6. David Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, ‘‘Twentieth-Century Technological Change,’’ in The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, ed. Engerman and Gallman, 3:803ff. 7. See ‘‘The Elevator,’’ in ‘‘Scientific American’’ Inventions and Discoveries, by Rodney Carlisle (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley, 2004), 260ff. 8. John P. McKay, ‘‘Comparative Perspectives on Transit in Western Europe and the United States, 1850–1914,’’ in Technology and the Rise of the Networked City in Europe and America, ed. Joel A. Tarr and Gabriel Dupuy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 3–21. 9. Bureau of the Census, Street and Electric Railways, 1902. The electrification of street railways was slowed by municipal regulators in Europe, largely for aesthetic reasons, but ‘‘shot through the American street railway industry like current through a copper wire.’’ This marvelous simile is thanks to McKay, ‘‘Comparative Perspectives.’’ 240 ⴗ NOTES TO PAGES 10 – 19 10. David W. Jones, Urban Transit Policy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.; Prentice Hall, 1985), 30–36. 11. Ibid., 47–48. 12. Leonard Fanning, Foreign Oil and the Free World (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954), 326. 13. Author’s calculations based on Maddison, World Economy: Historical Statistics. 14. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association, Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures, 1926 and 1952. 15. David Jones, 1978 and 1990 interviews with Richard M. Zettel, economic consultant for the California State Senate Committee on Streets and Highways; Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), America’s Highways, 1776–1976 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976). 16. FHWA, America’s Highways; Zettel interview. 17. Kenworthy and Laube report population densities for their sample of U.S. cities that are roughly half that of their sample of Canadian cities. Canadian cities are, in turn, roughly half as dense as their European counterparts. See Kenworthy and Laube, International Sourcebook, 548, table 5.5. 18. After World War II, European traffic engineers viewed parking as the critical constraint on urban motorization in Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. It can similarly be described as posing a significant constraint on automobile use in Montreal , Quebec, New York, Boston, and Chicago, but few other North American cities. Conversely, the free parking available in most American suburbs and sunbelt growth centers virtually ensures that the automobile will remain America’s primary form of mass transportation. 19. George Charlesworth has cogently observed that London’s outer-ring road has been completed, but most of the radial routes of the nationwide motorway network proposed for London have not been built. In effect, he concludes, ‘‘parking control’’ has emerged as the de facto means of traffic management in London. See George Charlesworth , A History of British Motorways (London: Thomas Telford, 1984). See also the city map of London in the Atlas of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). Little has changed since Charlesworth’s history of British motorways was published in 1984. 20. Peter Hall, Cities in Civilization (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998), chapter 24, ‘‘Paris: The City of Perpetual Public Works,’’ 745. See also Atlas of the World, 23. 21. Otto Sill, director of City Engineering, Homburg Germany, ‘‘The Role of Automobiles in Cities,’’ Institute of Traffic Engineers, 1965 Proceedings, 59–65. Sill concluded that ‘‘the use of the automobile for going to work no longer seems practicable’’ in German cities. 22. Ibid., 62. 23. American Public Transportation Association (APTA), passenger trips by mode, 1907–2003. 24. Bert Bolin et al., The Greenhouse Effect, Climatic Change, and Ecosystems (New York: John Wiley, 1986), xxv–xxxi. See also William D. Nordhaus, ‘‘Economic Approaches to Greenhouse Warming,’’ in Global Warming: Economic Policy Responses, ed. Rudiger Dornbusch and James M. Poterba (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 33–69. 25. Donella H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth (New York: Universe Books, 1972), 24; U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Business Statistics, 1963...