Poet-Monks: The Invention of Buddhist Poetry in Late Medieval China by Thomas J. Mazanec

Thomas Mazanec's Poet-Monks: The Invention of Buddhist Poetry in Late Medieval China is an ambitious and insightful work that explores the rise and evolution of a unique literary phenomenon in late medieval China (eighth to tenth century c.e.): Buddhist poetry written by poet-monks (shiseng 詩僧). While there is already substantial research on Buddhism and literature in this period, Mazanec's focus on the poetry of poet-monks, especially figures like Jiaoran 皎然 (720?–797?), Guanxiu 貫休 (832–913), and Qiji 齊己 (864–937?), provides a valuable and fresh contribution to the study of both medieval Chinese literature and Buddhism.

The book is divided into two parts. Part one, "History," comprising the first three chapters, traces the social history of the term shiseng (poet-monk), defined by Mazanec as "Buddhist monks who wrote poetry and understood themselves to be participants in elite literary circles" (p. 10). In chapter 1, "Introducing Poet-Monks: History, Geography, and Sociality," Mazanec offers a broad overview of the poet-monk concept, from its origins in the mid-eighth century to its proliferation in the tenth century. The term was coined around the 760s in Jiangnan 江南 (southeastern China) to describe a distinct monastic community. Several factors contributed to the rise of poet-monks, including the emergence of Chan 禪 lineages that emphasized everyday experiences as a path to enlightenment, the decentralization of political power after the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), and Jiangnan's growing cultural influence. In addition, improved monastic education and the dominance of a poetics associated with Wang Wei 王維 (700–761) fostered a space for poet-monks, who remained outside capital politics.

Mazanec divides the geographical spread of poet-monks into four stages: their emergence in Jiangnan (720–810), the expansion of their presence to the capital (811–874), their movement across the empire (875–907), and their consolidation in new cultural centers (907–960). Social interactions with literati in the mid-ninth century reveal that poet-monks were by then deeply embedded in mainstream literary culture. According to Mazanec's analysis, over 10,000 poems exchanged between more than 2,000 individuals from the period 830–960 underscores their prominence in the literary world of the time (p. 38). Mazanec argues that poet-monks "should not be regarded as minor actors in literary history" (p. 46) and suggests a reevaluation of the late Tang 唐 (618–907) literary period not as one of decline, as is commonly supposed, but, rather, as a time of growth and revival (p. 47).

Chapter 2, "Inventing Poet-Monks: The First Generation and Their Reception, 760–810," explores how literati discursively demarcated a space for poet-monks within the literary world, which poet-monks then learned to occupy. The chapter focuses on three figures: Lingyi 靈一 (727–766), Jiaoran, and Lingche 靈澈 (746?–816). In literati writings on Lingyi, Mazanec argues that, unlike the typical literatus, he was portrayed as a "crossover artist" (p. 55), primarily a Buddhist monk who used poetry to express and spread Buddhist teachings. While admired for his poetry, Lingyi was kept at arm's length by the literati. In the case of Jiaoran, the most prominent poet-monk in Chinese literary history, Mazanec notes a similar distinction made by literati between his and their literary engagement due to his religious practice. This attitude also applied to Lingche, who, despite being praised by the prominent literary figure Quan Deyu 權德輿 (758–815), was not fully accepted into the mainstream literary world. Overall, the first generation of poet-monks was regarded by the literati as outsiders, with the term "poet-monk" carrying somewhat negative connotations.

In chapter 3, "Becoming Poet-Monks: The Formation of a Tradition, 810–960," Mazanec traces the evolution of poet-monks through the second, third, and fourth stages of their development. As the fame of the first generation of poet-monks spread from their origins to the capital and across the empire, so too did the concept of the poet-monk. By the 820s, the term had become more generalized, applying to any Buddhist monk who wrote poetry. The earlier negative connotations faded, and poet-monk gradually became a recognized literary role (p. 82). By the late ninth century, this role had solidified into a tradition, largely due to the contributions of Guanxiu and Qiji, who redefined it to "describe those with a new vision for poetry, one that would merge literary with Buddhist practice" (p. 83). Between the mid-eighth and mid-tenth centuries, the social and cultural perspective on poet-monks as well as the geographical reach of their renown would undergo a transformation. They became accepted by the literati as full participants in the classical Confucian tradition, where poetry was revered as the highest art. Their story, as Mazanec emphasizes, is essential to understanding the literary history of medieval China.

Part two of the book, "Poetics," comprises the next three chapters that identify distinct features of the poet-monks' works and their precedents in both literary and religious practices. Chapter 4, "Repetition: Retriplication and Negation," focuses on the most striking stylistic feature of poet-monks' poetry: the use of "retriplication," or repeating a character three times in a row. This rare practice, seen in such works as by Guanxiu, drew readers' attention and was notably favored by Buddhist monks. Mazanec categorizes retriplication into three types: simple (repeating a character with the same meaning), complex (repeating a character with different meanings), and anadiplotic (dingzhen 頂真) (using a word or phrase at the end of one line and the beginning of the next). The influence of apophatic thought, rooted in both Buddhist and Daoist traditions, is highlighted as a source of this stylistic feature.

Chapter 5, "Incantation: Sonority and Foreignness," examines how ninth- and tenth-century poet-monks incorporated incantatory patterns into their poetry to enhance its power. Incantation, Mazanec claims, is common in religious practice through spells and scripture recitation and is characterized by its sonority and foreignness. Mazanec closely analyzes Guanxiu's and Qiji's works, highlighting their fascination with sound and the exotic. In one poem, Guanxiu expresses belief in the transformative power of sound, while, in others, he links spiritual power to "Indianness" (p. 164). These elements of incantation—sonority, foreignness, and repetition—converge in poems describing recitations of the Lotus Sutra by both Guanxiu and Qiji.

In chapter 6, "Meditation: Effort and Absorption," Mazanec contrasts Tang and Song 宋 (960–1279) poets' views on the relationship between poetry and meditation, noting that while Song poets understood the connection as metaphorical, Tang poets, especially Qiji, considered them one and the same. To explain how late Tang poet-monks came to assert the unity of meditation and poetry, Mazanec identifies two key influences in late ninth-century literary and Buddhist discourses. The first is the aesthetic of kuyin 苦吟, or painstaking composition, rooted in the work of Jia Dao 賈島 (779–843), which emphasized the effort and devotion required to craft poetry. The second, drawn from Lu Ji's 陸機 (261–303) "Rhapsody on Literature" ("Wenfu" 文賦), highlighted the poet's mental focus in the process of literary composition. When these ideas converged with poet-monks' meditative practices, Mazanec argues a new concept of Buddhist poetry emerged, equating poetry with meditation.

However, the book concludes by explaining why this view did not endure. Mazanec cites the decline of Tang poet-monks' influence, shifting aesthetic trends, and changing monastic regulations as the primary reasons. By the Song dynasty, the distinction between the realms of poetic practice and religious practice was restored.

In the Introduction, Mazanec sets two key goals: to "revive interest in this period and demonstrate how it is crucial to a fuller account of literary history" (p. 8), and to "understand the poetry of two monks in particular, Guanxiu and Qiji" (p. 10). He has more than achieved these aims. Through a detailed study of the rise of poet-monks and close readings of their poetry and related literary criticism by and about them, Mazanec successfully highlights the significance of this understudied topic in late medieval Chinese literary history, challenging the established view of this period as a low point in Chinese poetry.

While Mazanec demonstrates an impressive command of both primary and secondary scholarship, there are a few shortcomings to note. One is the notable omission of the important contributions of the scholar Chen Yinchi 陳引馳 on medieval Chinese literature and Buddhism. The book also contains some errors and choices that impact readability. For instance, Mazanec is inconsistent when following the convention of providing historical figures' characters and dates at first appearance. Some, like Dugu Ji 獨孤及 (725–777) and Quan Deyu, are listed multiple times, while others, such as Fangji 方及 and Daozong 道宗, are missing dates altogether. Not line numbering the poems makes it challenging to follow Mazanec's analysis, especially with longer works (e.g., pp. 179–183); and, furthermore, some line counts given for poems are inaccurate. The book also contains some typographical and translation errors. Examples of such errors include incorrect dates (e.g., "10072" instead of "1072" on p. 216; Zhixuan's 知玄 dates differ between pp. 28 and 152), inconsistent spellings of the same names (e.g., 靈澈 vs. 靈徹), and discrepancies in translated passages (e.g., different translations for the same text on pp. 107 and 202). More consequential inaccuracies can be found in places such as p. 217 in the translation of 堂中五百眾，似卑僧者，二 百五十，勝卑僧者，二百五十 as "Five hundred people gather at this temple: 250 lowly seeming monks, and 250 superior monks." Here, 似 does not mean "seeming" or "as if" modifying "lowly" but, rather, "to resemble," modifying the speaker as lowly monk. A more accurate rendering might read: "Of the five hundred gathered in the temple, 250 resemble me, this lowly monk, and 250 surpass me, [a lowly monk]."

Despite these flaws, Mazanec provides valuable English translations of many Buddhist poems that were previously untranslated, offering a significant contribution to the study of medieval Chinese literature and Buddhism. Students and scholars of medieval Chinese literature, literary criticism, and Chinese or comparative Buddhism will find this book both engaging and insightful. Overall, Poet-Monks is a well-researched and important work that deepens our understanding of the poet-monk identity and the intricate relationship between Buddhist practice and medieval Chinese poetry.