Introduction to the Special ACPR Issue on State Fragility and Fragmentation in Africa

INTRODUCTION: THE ISSUE OF STATE FRAGILITY AND FRAGMENTATION

State fragility and fragmentation are highly prevalent across Africa, affecting many countries in the region. Nearly half of the states on the continent are classified as fragile or at risk of becoming fragile (Fund for Peace 2023; Cilliers, Schünemann, and Moyer 2015). This prevalence is evident in the frequent occurrence of internal conflicts, the widespread inability of governments to deliver basic public services, and the persistent challenges in maintaining territorial integrity and political stability. In many cases, these fragile states are characterized by weak institutions, pervasive corruption, economic underdevelopment, and a lack of effective governance (OECD 2018). The fragmentation of these states often exacerbates existing ethnic, religious, and regional divides, further destabilizing societies and impeding development. Consequently, the issue of state fragility and fragmentation is not only widespread but also deeply entrenched, posing significant obstacles to peace, security, and sustainable development across the continent. This special issue brings together diverse perspectives that examine these critical challenges, with a central theme evident in all the included papers: the urgent need to understand and address the complex interconnections between weak state institutions, the lack of political legitimacy, and the internal and external forces contributing to state fragility and fragmentation in Africa.

According to Robert I. Rotberg (2004), “Fragile states are those failing to provide basic services and economic opportunities to their citizens. Such states are no longer able to protect their citizens from violence and perhaps even destruction, and such states are no longer able to control their borders” (5). This perspective highlights several critical aspects of fragility, including security, public services, and territorial integrity. Although Rotberg correctly identifies the symptoms of state fragility, his definition could benefit from explicit mention of government institutions and their role in worsening or resolving fragility. Furthermore, it does not fully capture the various causes of this incapacity, such as corruption or mismanagement of resources. On the other hand, Francis Fukuyama (2004) notes that “Fragility refers to the lack of institutional capacity to maintain order, deliver services, and foster economic development” (26). Fukuyama in this sense highlights the importance of institutions in state fragility. The definition stresses institutional capacity as the determining factor. By emphasizing order, services, and economic development, Fukuyama encapsulates the essential functions of a state. However, there is a bit of gap in how political legitimacy and citizen participation connect with the issue of security, which is critical for fragile states.

Susan E. Rice and Stewart Patrick (2008) also contributed to the discourse on state fragility. As they argue, fragile states are those where the government cannot or will not dispense its core duties to the masses, most notably security, basic services, and essential infrastructure. This definition has a balance to it as it highlights the inability or unwillingness of governments to provide fundamental functions. It is notable for explicitly including the poor, emphasizing inequality and exclusion as elements of fragility. Although this definition covers security, basic services, and infrastructure, crucial aspects of state resilience, its focus is on functions rather than the institutional structures themselves. Furthermore, it does not distinguish between incapacity and lack of will, two situations that may require different approaches.

It follows from the definitions that the fragility of a state refers to the systemic weakness of the institutions and governance structures of a state, manifested by the inability to provide basic public services, maintain public order, and promote economic development. This condition is exacerbated by factors such as poor governance, corruption, persistent internal violence, and the inability or unwillingness of leaders to meet the basic needs of the population, including the most vulnerable. Fragility is also associated with the artificiality of the borders of African states and the lack of political legitimacy.

The colonial legacy in Africa remains a significant source of fragility as the state borders and governance systems were never designed to foster long-term stability (Acemoglu and Robinson 2012). This legacy is compounded by region-specific drivers of instability, as seen in the Horn of Africa, where...