The Turks in the Land of Afghans: History, Politics, and Relationships

Introduction

Turkish foreign policy in Afghanistan dates to the changing dynamics in the Ottoman Empire's foreign policy, particularly following the Russian Empire's wars and the support of the British Empire during the middle of the nineteenth century.¹ The Ottoman Empire then began communicating with the Durrani and Barakzai dynasties in Afghanistan through different missions from Istanbul and Mumbai to Kabul. Ottoman foreign policy did not establish diplomatic relations, although it had previously had some positive communication with the rulers of Afghanistan. Due to increasing weaknesses in its colonies during the Great War and the rise of the İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti (Committee of Union and Progress, CUP), the Ottoman Empire ended in collapse. Then, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk rose to power and declared the Republic of Turkey in 1923.² Turkish foreign policy toward Afghanistan developed through different periods: first, in the Kingdom of Afghanistan until the 1950s, then in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in the first two decades of the twenty-first century (2004-2021), and currently in the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan beginning from August 2021 when Taliban forces took over Kabul.³ In parallel, Turkish foreign policy toward Afghanistan, although starting with Atatürk, could not escape the impacts of the country's domestic politics and challenges in previous decades, for instance, the successful coups in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997. Furthermore, relations were affected by Turkey's socioeconomic and political developments from the 1960s until the 1990s, including anti-Communism and the rise of Islamism. Such political instabilities, which were either caused by changes in power or by the rise of and conflict between different ideologies, significantly impacted the aims and priorities behind Turkey's foreign policy.

Turkish foreign policy in Afghanistan has seen critical developments following the so-called war on terror, including the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001 and later that of NATO in 2003, and in Turkish politics the rise of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and his party, Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party, AKP).⁴ The Erdoğan era has seen proactive, far-reaching, and noticeable developments in Turkey's domestic politics and foreign policy in particular. Turkish foreign policy has taken a different path from that followed from the time of Atatürk's predecessors until Turgut Özal. The rise of Erdoğan and his party has undeniably impacted Turkish foreign policy, especially Turkish-Afghan relations. In his era, Turkey has participated in NATO missions in Afghanistan and has initiated different strategies cementing Turkish-Afghan relations with the various regimes in Afghanistan, which dramatically increased Turkey's role in the country. This came to include overseeing hundreds of humanitarian and developmental assistance projects in Kabul, Mazar-i Sharif, Herat, and other cities, which made Turkey one of the most active foreign powers in Afghanistan.⁵ This becomes even more interesting when considering the end of the U.S. and NATO military missions and the subsequent departure of foreign forces in late 2021, which allowed the Taliban to take power. This once again made Afghanistan an essential topic in international relations and foreign policymaking in many countries, including Turkey.

This article, based mainly on secondary resources and qualitative analysis, aims to explore Turkish foreign policy in Afghanistan historically, politically, and operationally and is divided into four sections. The first provides a brief account of the history of Afghanistan. The second sheds light on the earlier developments of Turkish foreign policy in Afghanistan, first through the Ottoman Empire and later in the Republic of Turkey through Atatürk and subsequent eras, focusing on the Erdoğan era. Third, the article then investigates the Turkish state and the Taliban from historical, political, and intellectual perspectives, showing the potential similarities and differences between the two entities, and the Turkish foreign policy with a specific focus on the era of Erdoğan in Turkey and the Taliban in Afghanistan. The fourth and final section examines the motivations behind Turkish foreign policy in Afghanistan.

A Short History of Afghanistan

What is known today as the Islamic...