Breaking the Containment: Horse Trade between the Ming Empire and its Northern Neighbors, 1368–1570

This paper examines the tributary horse trade between Ming China and the northern tribes and states from 1368 to 1570, when an expansive Ming Empire turned toward a defensive position. Concurrent with this reorientation of the empire were reshufflings of the tributary relations binding the Ming to its northern neighbors. Mongols, the war enemies of the Ming, were initially excluded from the horse trade but became a major horse provider later on. Our paper analyzes the timing and causes of such a shift, positing that the changing relations between the Ming and Mongols were both affected by and consequences of their relations with other tributary parties. Our paper offers a new perspective on tributary practices: we examine the differentiation of tributary ties and changes provoked by unforeseeable alterations of interconnections; as well, we analyze the mixed economic/political/cultural motivations that played out in the practices.