Variation and Change in French Morphosyntax: The Case of Collective Nouns by Anna Tristram (review)

different directions. Other changes such as the spread of particular syntactic constructions are due to loanwords, particularly from French. Sayahi has shown, for example, that the analytical forms of the expression of possession in North African dialects are more widely used with borrowed French words.In addition,among the many interesting insights of this study is that the High and Low “varieties are substantially different structurally and it is not only because of their intense contact with other languages [such as French], as is often believed by speakers and policymakers” (201). With the widening differences between the Low and the High varieties, and the increased awareness of the communicative functionality of the Low varieties, diglossia could end, thus leading to the emergence of new languages. Providing its new perspective, Sayahi’s book is a welcome addition to the research within the field of multilingualism, language contact, and bilingualism in North Africa. University of Delaware Ali Alalou TRISTRAM, ANNA. Variation and Change in French Morphosyntax: The Case of Collective Nouns. Oxford: Legenda, 2014. ISBN 978-1-907975-95-0. Pp. 178. $99. While language variation and change have been the focal point for linguists on this side of the Atlantic, Tristram argues that studies on morphosyntactic variation in French studies are lacking due to a focus on phonology and dialectology as well as denial of variation and change in the French language. Tristram’s book is thus a welcome contribution. It investigates verbal agreement with collective nouns such as majorité, minorité, partie, moitié, and foule, as in “une foule de voitures de deuil encombrait les abords de l’hôtel” versus “une foule de détails ont été omis” (1). The book’s ambitious objectives and approaches encompass quantitative, qualitative, synchronic, and diachronic methods using sociolinguistic interviews, Cloze tests, analysis of a large corpus from the database Frantext, and a survey of norms taught in French grammar textbooks. Tristram points out that it is difficult to define collective nouns, since “French studies are often not explicit about which nouns are included and which are excluded in the delimitation of the class” (17). Her review of the literature confirms disagreement about how referents are conceptualized. Quite a bit of space is devoted to English collective nouns, providing a basis for a comparative study. Tristram describes the methodological challenges of gathering a satisfactory sampling and explains the reasoning behind the use of each technique. Sociolinguistic interviews, for example, offer “authentic data [...] and more control over the sociolinguistic profile of the participants” (46). The author’s consideration of the social factors influencing the use of collective nouns is uneven. Gender and education are deemed relevant (a full chapter is devoted to the impact of education) but surprisingly, ethnicity and regional factors were excluded from the study, which may undermine the author’s wide-ranging goals. As an example of her findings, Tristram’s Cloze test for 286 FRENCH REVIEW 89.3 Reviews 287 majorité reveals a tendency among young French speakers (ages fourteen and fifteen) toward plural verbs. They used a plural verb in 66.67% of cases, as compared to 56.25% for adults over sixty (87). She also found that definite and indefinite articles influence agreement: older speakers use a singular verb with la foule 100% of the time, but only 64.29% with une foule (93). Tristram’s review of the historical use of collective nouns shows variation over time. Through the eighteenth century, for example, use of plural verbs rose from 12.5% of cases to 37.31% and then declined to 31.78% (99). Her examination of twentieth-century grammar textbooks found that they approached verbal agreement with collective nouns flexibly, with no apparent change over time. This book undertakes so much that the reader sometimes feels lost in its multifaceted methodology and lengthy endnotes.A more straightforward research design and more concise writing style, along with more examples and discussions focused specifically on the results, would have helped to put the grammar in context and done greater justice to Tristram’s tremendous effort and rich data. Nonetheless, her book is an interesting invitation to learn about morphosyntactic variation in French using a variety of methodologies and corpora. Manhattan...