Lactantius's Power Theology

In their introduction to Lactantius's Divine Institutes [Inst.], Anthony Bowen and Peter Garnsey emphasize the significance of the term virtus in his thought and remark on the special difficulties it poses for both translators and theological interpreters.² To the translator, the term conveys a range of meanings that span from the foundational sense of "power" to the moral connotations of "virtue."³ To the theologian, virtus appears to substitute doctrinally significant language with an unsubstantial moral rhetoric.⁴ Lactantius's use of virtus has thus contributed to a general scholarly impression that his theology is deficient. As Blandine Colot summarizes his reputation: "C'est lorsqu'on l'aborde d'un point de vue doctrinal qu'on juge Lactance par trop désordonné et insaisissable, et sa théologie, médiocre, voire inconsistante."⁵

The presumption of Lactantius's doctrinal shortcomings motivated scholars to seek his contributions outside of theological matters.⁶ Although historical studies continue to examine his significance for the Constantinian period, theologians have made only slight modifications to the narrative of his insufficient theology.⁷ Lactantius's oratorical skill seemed to reconcile his theologically marginal position with his apparently significant role in the Constantinian era.⁸ The Divine Institutes use of virtus fits neatly into the larger narrative of Lactantius's political life.⁹

Recent patristic scholarship calls, however, for a significant rereading of Lactantius's doctrinal positions and for careful attention to the notion of virtus.¹⁰ Following the work of Michel Barnes, patrologists have come to recognize the technical signification of the term power (vis, virtus, potestas, δύναμις) and the formula "power and nature" in early Christian Trinitarian theologies, both Greek and Latin.¹¹ What Barnes has termed as "power theology" provides a stable point of comparison for assessing Lactantius's theology relative to other pre-Nicene Latin authors.¹² The technical sense of "power" clarifies his use of virtus by distinguishing his notions of "power" and "virtue," and by demonstrating the theological tradition to which his use of the term belongs—a pre-Nicene Latin tradition that builds upon the thought of Tertullian. Because of his nearness to Constantine, revising scholarly accounts of Lactantius's theology invites further modifications to the story of his witness to Christianity in the Constantinian period and of his influence on later theologians, not least of whom was Saint Augustine.¹³

To reconsider Lactantius's theology, this article offers a doctrinal account of his presentation of the Father and the Son by examining the notion of virtus in his account of the Son. After a brief review of power theology, I examine the meaning of virtus in the early discussion of the divine nature in the Divine Insitutes (Inst. 1.3–26 and 2.8). A third section uses these initial findings to reconsider Lactantius's Christology (Inst. 4.6–10), and to observe Lactantius's reception of Tertullian and Cyprian, along the way. A final section shows that the technical sense of "power" (virtus) grounds several analogies for the unity between Father and Son (Inst. 4.29), which conclude Inst. 4. As a result, this article establishes the foundational meaning of virtus in Lactantius's theology. It shows that the causal and moral senses of virtus rely upon the technical sense of "power," and that Lactantius's discussion is consistent with leading voices of pre-Nicene Latin Christianity—Tertullian, Cyprian, and Novatian. Such a reading supports the conclusion that Lactantius advocated a traditional pre-Nicene Latin theology. He framed his account for the apologetic context, while remaining sensitive to third-century doctrinal controversies. As the last pre-Nicene Latin apologist, Lactantius brought a traditional "Catholic" doctrine to bear upon the issues of his day.¹⁴

Power Theology: A Very Brief Review

In recent patristic scholarship, the term "power theology" refers to a set of technically defined propositions that were foundational to the philosophy and theology of the early Common Era. As Barnes explains, "δύναμις was, for the early Church, a foundational term in Trinitarian theology, foundational in the way that σοφία and λόγος are understood to have been...