From Outcasts to Emperors: Shingon Ritsu and the Mañjus̀rī Cult in Medieval Japan by David Quinter (review)

After decades of an almost exclusive focus on the early founders of the so-called New Kamakura Buddhism schools, a notable balancing of interest has emerged in figures and schools of "established" Buddhism of the early medieval period. David Quinter's study of the Japanese Shingon Ritsu movement founded by Eison (1201–90) and its manifest connections to the popular cult of Mañjus̀rī adds to this growing body of scholarship in English in a significant way. It also employs the increasingly interdisciplinary approach of recent scholarship in its interwoven examination of the material, social, ritual, and narrative dimensions of Eison's activities and those who followed him. Throughout, Quinter uncovers a complex matrix of religious, social, political, and economic factors that converged to influence the development of the Shingon Ritsu movement centered at Saidaiji and popular devotion to Mañjus̀rī.

Much has been written on the precept revival movement initiated by Eison, alongside three companions (Kakujō, Ensai, and Ugon), with a controversial self-ordination ceremony (jisei jukai) performed before an image of Kannon at Tōdaiji in 1236. The Saidaiji order that he subsequently established attracted like-minded monks perhaps disillusioned with the worldly ways of the Nara establishment and drawn to a more traditional and disciplined Sangha community. Early in his career, however, Eison was also trained in the esoteric Shingon tradition at Daigoji, Kōyasan, and Tōdaiji, so his newfound movement embodied a unique synthesis of strict precept adherence and esoteric ritual expertise in the "three mysteries" (sanmitsu) of body, speech, and mind as expressed through mudras, mantras, and mandalas. Eison circulated widely among a broad spectrum of classes conferring the bodhisattva precepts and holding public services. He and his disciple Ninshō (1217–1303), in particular, emphasized social welfare and charity among the outcasts of society (hinin) such as beggars and lepers. In 1255, Eison commissioned an image of Mañjus̀rī and installed it at Hannyaji near Nara expressly for the salvation of nearby hinin. Eison sometimes lamented the challenge of raising funds for this project through the typical kanjin (fundraising) appeals.

In this detailed and nuanced study, Quinter traces the development of the Ritsu Shingon order of Saidaiji from its founder Eison through his disciples Ninshō, Shinkū (1229–1316), and Monkan (1278–1357). Woven into this historical review is a study of the unique and imaginative ways Eison and his disciples transformed the devotional cult to Mañjus̀rī by synthesizing the traditional emphasis on the bodhisattva as the exemplar of wisdom with active worldly engagement through charitable activities, memorial rites, precepts conferrals, and temple and icon construction projects. To fully understand and appreciate the resourcefulness of this complex synthesis of doctrine and praxis, one must grasp the particularities of the time and place. Quinter guides the reader skillfully through a maze of interconnected historical, political, social, and institutional factors that shaped the resulting fusion.

The book is divided into a lengthy introduction, six somewhat chronological chapters, an epilogue, and ten adept translations of various primary sources. Chapter 1 traces the early decades (1230s and 1240s) of Eison's formation of the Saidaiji order and his teacher-disciple relationship with Ninshō. Chapter 2 investigates the historical precedents for the Mañjus̀rī assemblies led by Eison and Ninshō. These include the four generally cited, which are the Mañjus̀rī Parinirva¯na Sūtra, the Mañjus̀rī cult on Mt. Wutai, Gyōki's activities (first half of the eighth century), and the early ninth-century assemblies in Japan sponsored by the state. Quinter expands the horizon of analysis by examining two Mañjus̀rī assemblies in the thirteenth century and a fascinating link between early Saidaiji order assemblies and memorial rites for mothers. Chapter 3 explores Eison's notable outreach efforts on behalf of the outcast community residing near Hannyaji (Yamato Province), a Saidaiji-connected...