Transnational Associational Life and Political Mobilization of Ecuadorians and Argentines in Spain and Italy: What Role for Sending State Policies?

To what extent and how can sending states encourage migrant organizational efforts and transnational political engagements? This study addresses this question for the cases of Ecuadorians and Argentines in Spain and Italy. The findings show that both sending states have recently innovated, reaching out to citizens abroad through a similar combination of policy instruments: rhetorical changes, institutional developments, enfranchisement, and linkage programs. The scope, intensity, and results of outreach efforts differ not only across migrant communities but also localities, suggesting the need to explore factors such as domestic and intrastate politics, migrants' socioeconomic and educational profile and perceptions of state institutions, spatial distance, and the type of private-public policy networks at migrant destinations. The conclusions indicate that states have been relatively effective in tapping into migrants' symbolic and emotional attachments to the homeland, but they have obtained meager results in terms of grounding such attachment in strong organizations, persistent transnational political engagement, and partnership links. The modality of policy implementation resulted in a sporadic and "sentimental" political mobilization of both Ecuadorian and Argentine emigrant communities, which still confront serious organizational problems and remain far from working as strong influential groups at home or ethnic lobbies in receiving countries.