In the Wake of the Cultural Revolution: Chinese Translations of Hard Times (1978) and Great Expectations (1979)

The Cultural Revolution in China (1966–1976) represented a major and defining era in the nation’s history: the political, economic and social impact on the population was huge. In the immediate aftermath of this painful period, a search for new ideas and points of orientation began, an impetus that called on the nation to look back before looking forward. In the three decades following the Cultural Revolution, the novels of Charles Dickens enjoyed a remarkable reaffirmation of the place they had formerly held in the country’s cultural life since the early twentieth century. It is of particular significance that the first two translations of his works to be published after “the storm” were Hard Times and Great Expectations.¹ The titles themselves appeared to speak to the wounded Chinese soul, although nothing was said directly on this subject in the individual forewards that accompanied the publication of each novel at the time.

Prior to the Cultural Revolution, the attitude to Dickens had been one of enthusiasm, a predictable response given the author’s critical portrayal of capitalist society. Equally unsurprising, the artistic value of his fiction had received less scrutiny. After 1976, however, Dickens’s work was seen to present broader opportunities for the publishing houses. As the Chinese authorities tried to distance themselves from the Cultural Revolution, the novels of the English author offered the chance to consider humanism as opposed to realism, individualism as opposed to collectivism; at the same time, the translation and publication of several of his works was considered to be an important task for publishers. Evidence of this is that the following were published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House: Hard Times (1978), translated by Quan Zenggu (全增嘏) and Hu Wenshu (胡文淑); Great Expectations (1979), translated by Wang Keyi (王科一); Bleak House (1979), translated by Huang Bangjie (黄邦杰), Chen Shaoheng (陈少衡) and Zhang Zimo (张自谋); The Pickwick Papers (1979) translated by Jiang Tianzuo (蒋天佐), although Pickwick had been first published in 1947; David Copperfield (1980) translated by Zhang Guruo (张谷若); and A Tale of Two Cities (1989), translated by Zhang Liang (张玲) and Zhang Yang (张扬). But the two most important novels were, without doubt, Hard Times and Great Expectations.

For such politically charged but also versatile works, the challenge for any translator was going to be great. While Hard Times had already been translated during the 1920s, the publication of Great Expectations in 1979 was an important literary event marking the first Chinese translation of the novel. The linguistic challenges of the two novels, as well as their critical treatment of capitalist values, suggest that these two works held particular significance for Chinese literary and translation history. The timing of the publication in 1978 and 1979 during a period of drastic social, political and cultural upheaval lent even more impact to their reception in China. For these reasons, any study of the global significance of Hard Times and Great Expectations must take into account their literary, political and socio-cultural contribution to intellectual life in China.

Before considering the specific translations, let me comment briefly on the previous history of Chinese translations of Dickens, not least since he was one of the earliest European-American writers introduced into China. Dickens was also one of the most translated foreign writers in Chinese translation history. Following the first group of translations – Nicholas Nickleby, The Old Curiosity Shop, David Copperfield, Oliver Twist and Dombey and Son, introduced by Lin Shu to China between 1907 and 1909, interest in his works increased. The only real interruption occurred between 1966 and 1976. Both before and after the Cultural Revolution, Dickens was highly regarded as an outstanding critical realist in China, whose novels, literary critics agreed, illuminated various aspects of humanistic thought.

To coincide with the 125^th anniversary of his birth, a Chinese journal titled Translation devoted a special issue to Dickens in 1937, presenting three articles about his work to Chinese readers. Written by a Soviet critic, the first was entitled “迭更斯论—为人道而战的现实主义大师” (“The Realist Master of Humanism”).² The author’s objective was to present Dickens to Chinese readers as an...