Gender Effect on the Information Environment of Distance Learners in Botswana / Effet du genre sur l’environnement informationnel des apprenants à distance au Botswana

Abstract

Gender issues on educational discourse have been extensively discussed worldwide over several years. Cases of gender disparity in education and the need to address the imbalances have therefore attracted the attention of scholars. Distance learning is known to have the capacity to take knowledge and training to the marginalized, isolated, underprivileged, and the unreachable and, consequently, bridge the disparity gap and redress imbalances. While focusing on gender, this study identifies the information needs of distance learners in Botswana, determines how their information needs are met, explores the information resources and services available, and identifies the challenges they face. The study adopted a quantitative research design using a survey method. Participants were solicited from four distance-teaching institutions: the University of Botswana, the University of Derby, the University of South Africa, and the Management College of Southern Africa. The results of the study indicate, as comparisons were drawn, that in virtually all significantly related areas female distance learners appear to lag behind their male counterparts. For instance, results reveal that male distance learners tend to have a greater need to make information-based decisions than females; more males use email and other electronic resources as information sources than females; and men prefer both reference services and journals over women. While more females were in locations where they could access well-equipped libraries than males, findings show that men use those library and information facilities more than women distance learners in Botswana. Based on the findings of this study, some recommendations are made.

Résumé

Les questions de genre dans le discours éducatif ont été largement débattues partout dans le monde depuis plusieurs années. Les cas de disparité entre les sexes dans l’éducation et la nécessité de remédier aux déséquilibres ont donc attiré l’attention des chercheurs. L’enseignement à distance est réputé pour avoir la capacité d’amener connaissances et formation aux personnes marginalisées, isolées, défavorisées et exclues, et par conséquent de combler l’écart dû aux disparités et de corriger les déséquilibres. Tout en se concentrant sur le genre, cette étude identifie les besoins informationnels des apprenants à distance au Botswana, détermine la façon dont leurs besoins informationnels sont satisfaits, explore les ressources et les services informationnels disponibles, et identifie les défis auxquels ils sont confrontés. Aux fins de cette étude, nous avons adopté une conception quantitative de la recherche et utilisé une enquête comme méthode. Les participants ont été sollicités auprès de quatre institutions d’enseignement à distance : l’Université du Botswana (UB), l’Université de Derby (UBD), Université d’Afrique du Sud (UNISA), et le Collège de gestion de l’Afrique australe (MANCOSA). Les résultats de l’étude indiquent, une fois les comparaisons établies, que dans pratiquement tous les domaines interreliés de manière significative, les femmes semblent être à la traîne de leurs homologues masculins. Par exemple, les résultats révèlent que les hommes apprenants à distance ont tendance à avoir un plus grand besoin de prendre des décisions basées sur l’information que les femmes; plus d’hommes utilisent le courrier électronique et d’autres ressources électroniques comme sources d’information que de femmes et les hommes privilégient les services de référence et les revues scientifiques plus que les femmes. Plus de femmes que d’hommes se trouvaient dans des endroits où elles avaient accès à des bibliothèques bien équipées, cependant les résultats montrent qu’au Botswana les hommes utilisent ces bibliothèques et les ressources informationnelles plus que les femmes. Sur la base des résultats de cette étude, nous faisons quelques recommandations.

Introduction

Gender issues on educational discourse have been extensively discussed worldwide over several years. Cases of gender disparity in education and the need to address the imbalances have therefore attracted the attention of scholars. N’Dri Assié-Lumumba (2006) perceives gender inequality in higher education as a reflection of broader societal structural inequality. Insung Jung and Aya Fukuda (2013) observe that in Asia the gender disparity is one of the serious issues in education. As if to address the seriousness of disparity in education, they affirm that distance education has expanded the opportunity for the underprivileged or marginalized people to access education—women and girls in particular. Quoting the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2009), the authors note that although steady progress has been made in achieving some gender parity regarding secondary enrolment ratios, the situation is still far from satisfactory in Asia and that while female enrolment in higher education has increased globally, it is not the case in most parts of Asia.

In a document highlighting some experiences and strategies on women and information communication technologies (ICTs) for open and distance learning (ODL) in the Commonwealth, Lyndsay Green and Lawry Trevor-Deutsch (2002) state that in Malaysia, 46 percent of the students at the Institute for Distance Education at the Universiti Putra Malaysia are women; in Pakistan, 43 percent of Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) students are women; in India, the enrolment of women in Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was 28.4 percent in 1998. Today in Asia, Jung and Fukuda (2013) report that female enrolment in most mega and dedicated distance teaching universities is over 50 percent. This statement is reinforced in a study by Green and Trevor-Deutsch (2002) who observe that the Sri Lankan report finds no gender disparity in women’s enrolment in schools and tertiary educational institutions. According to them, women represent 60 percent of the students following external degree programs.

In Africa, Green and Trevor-Deutsch (2002) declare that men greatly outnumber women in most learning programs for which statistics were provided. However, Ngome (2003) observes that while there are some improvements in the enrolment of female students in some private higher education institutions, the female representation in public institutions is still low, with only about 30 percent of total enrolments in the public universities. Assié-Lumumba (2006) asserts that higher education continues to be clearly identified with the male, especially in science and technology and in management. Earlier, Cristiano Pereira (2002, 1), in the case of Nigeria, states that the distribution of students in science and technology reflects the pattern of male over-representation judging by the data that was revealed: of the students in Nigerian universities enrolled in science, only 31.7 percent were women, 37.6 percent were in social sciences, and 44.6 percent were in arts. In Ghana, Adwoa Kwapong (2008) notes that the University of Education in Winneba, which began its ODL program in 1998, has approximately 7,000 students with females making up 53 percent and males 46.5 percent of its Level 300 for the 2006–07 school year. The University of Cape Coast, which began in 2001, has over 18,000 students, with females making up 49.7 percent and males 50.2 percent of the diploma in education courses.

Assié-Lumumba (2006), however, states that in Southern Africa there is a narrower gender gap. According to the author, there are also national situations or localities within countries where the female enrolment rates are higher than those of males. He observes that it is the case at the primary school level in Botswana and Namibia. Assié-Lumumba (2006) claims that the case of Lesotho is exceptional with female over-representation up to the university level. In a document, the University of South Africa (UNISA) (2007) records over 185,660 students registered in its formal programs, of whom 56 percent were females and 44 percent were males. Compared to the gains in Lesotho and the UNISA in South Africa, Assié-Lumumba (2006) confirms the analysis of Rudo Gaidzanwa (2007) who credits the University of Zimbabwe as a particularly unfriendly and overtly gender-based hostile environment for both female students and staff members. Similarly, in his general outlines on the progress and pitfalls in women’s pursuit of higher education, a data analyst from the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s Institute for Statistics, Chiao-Ling Chien (2012), observes that women face considerable barriers as they move up the education ladder to research careers. For example, in a recent study on adult literacy rates in nine sub-Saharan Africa countries, Thulani Dube (2015) reveals that eight of them show a glaring disparity between male and female adults in terms of literacy, with most of the countries showing a disparity of at least 5 percent in favour of males while countries like Togo have higher disparities of over 15 percent in favour of males. Dube confirms that only Botswana appears to have a gender gap favouring females. Examining the higher education outputs, Chien (2012) declares that in terms of the number of graduates produced the global picture shows a near balance between men and women who obtain Bachelor’s degrees. However, slightly more women (56 percent) than men get Master’s degrees, but men surpass women in virtually all countries at the highest levels of education, accounting for 56 percent of all doctoral graduates and 71 percent of researchers.

The initial wide disparity compelled various organizations to attempt to bridge the gap or eliminate the disparity across the world. For instance, UNICEF (2009) in a technical paper titled Towards Gender Equality in Education: Progress and Challenges in the Asia-Pacific Region states that the UN Girls’ Education Initiative has been a part of the response to the call at the international level. Several national governments across the world have also been initiating action plans to achieve gender equality at all levels of education and in all spheres of life. The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2008), in its contribution to creating greater awareness on gender issues for the public service, organized a two-day meeting in London in July 2008. COL notes the assertions of Janet Jenkins, a trainer and consultant in open and distance learning, that there is decreasing attention paid to the specific needs of female learners in ODL and affirms that since the turn of the century there has apparently been a tapering off of initiatives with a specific gender perspective. COL states that Jenkins reminded the delegates that the bedrock of ODL is its capacity to offer wider access to learning, particularly for those otherwise unable to participate, including women. Jung and Fukuda (2013) confirm this assertion when they declare that distance education has expanded the opportunities for the underprivileged or marginalized people to access education—women and girls in particular. Olugbade Oladokun (2002) had witnessed this trend earlier, explaining that one argument often stated by the advocates of distance education programs for building “distance teaching” capacity is that the system takes knowledge and training to the marginalized, isolated, underprivileged, and the unreachable. He therefore argues that distance education should probably be more relevant to Africa than any other place on earth, affirming that the most underprivileged, isolated, marginalized, and hardly reachable people are probably found in Africa.

Purpose and objectives of this study

While specifically focusing on gender, this study also sought to:

• • identify the information needs of distance learners in Botswana;

• • determine how the information needs of distance learners are met;

• • explore the information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana; and

• • identify the challenges faced by distance learners in Botswana.

Methods of study

The research methods used for the study are discussed below under the following headings: research design, survey method, criteria used to select institutions of study, population of the study, sample size, and data analysis.

Research design

Research design has been defined in different ways by different scholars and researchers, revealing the multi-dimensionality of the concept. Anol Bhattacherjee (2012) perceives it as a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering specific research questions or testing specific hypotheses. The study was conceptualized within a quantitative research framework for reasons of the large population involved. A quantitative research design was also considered because the design ensures objectivity, generalizability, and reliability. Nedra Weinreich (2006) explains that the strengths of the quantitative paradigm are that its methods produce quantifiable, reliable data that are usually generalizable to some larger population.

Survey method

The survey research method, according to Bhattacherjee (2012), involves the use of standardized questionnaires or interviews to collect data about people and their preferences, thoughts, and behaviours in a systematic manner. For this study, the questionnaire survey method was used because it allowed for a sampling of a large population of distance learners from four distance-teaching institutions that met the criteria set. Survey research involves collecting data to test hypotheses or to answer questions about people’s opinions, topics, or issues.

Criteria used in selecting the institutions of study

In selecting the institutions used for this study, two main parameters were considered. First, did such distance-teaching institutions have any accredited agent in Botswana? Second, did the students of such institutions occasionally meet in any centres or locations in the country either for residential sessions, study weekends, or to write tests and/or examinations? Four distance-teaching institutions that met the criteria and were involved in this study include the University of Botswana (UB), the University of Derby (UD), the University of South Africa (UNISA), and the Management College of Southern Africa (MANCOSA).

Population of the study

A target population or sampling frame is a group of individuals with some common defining characteristics that the researcher can identify and study (Creswell 2014). The total population of the four institutions obtained for the study in Botswana was 1,996 students. Of this number, the UB had 632, the UD had seventy-five at the time of the study, the UNISA had 1,215 students, and the MANCOSA had seventy-four students.

Table 1.

The institutions and the number of students to study

Sample size

The sample size used for the study was 519 participants, comprising a mix of both undergraduate and graduate students. The census method was applied to the UD and the MANCOSA, which had 100 or fewer students in Botswana, while a sample size of 20 percent each was randomly selected from the UB and the UNISA—the two institutions with 500 or more students. To clarify the confusion that occasionally follows sample sizes in surveys, Lorrie Gay and Peter Airasian (2003, 112) recommend a “sample 10 to 20 percent of the population for descriptive research,” although the authors note that the range may change with the size of the population studied. Table 1 presents details of the breakdown. A total of 519 of 1,996 (the total population) became the sample size— namely, the participants who were sent the questionnaire. The appendix at the end of this article provides details of the questions asked.

Data analysis

The data obtained were analyzed using the IBM-SPSS program. Standard statistics were used, including frequency distributions and percentages, to carry out the analysis. Tables were developed to provide an overview of frequencies as well as cross-tabs. Cross-tabulations and chi-square, non-parametric statistical significance tests were applied to test the relationship of one variable to groupings of others.

Results

Response rate

Out of a total of 519 copies of the questionnaire, self-administered to the participants, 364 copies (of the questionnaire) were returned duly completed, thus giving a response rate of 70.1 percent.

Gender

Of the 364 respondents, 42.6 percent (n = 155) were males and 57.4 percent (n = 209) were females. The distribution of the respondents by gender according to institutions is captured in Table 2. In virtually all of the institutions of study, female respondents outnumbered their male counterparts. This seems to suggest that more females were enrolled in tertiary-level distance education programs than males in Botswana.

Table 2.

Institution and gender cross-tabulation

Table 3.

Gender and program of study: cross-tabulation

In the cross-tabulation of gender with the program of study, the results indicate that a higher proportion of females (68 percent) than men (59 percent) were enrolled at the first-degree level; while more men (41 percent) than women (32 percent) study at the Masters’ level. Table 3 provides the details. The findings confirm Dube’s (2015) observation in his study of nine African countries that only Botswana appears to have a gender gap favouring females. The other eight countries, according to Dube, show a glaring disparity between male and female adults in terms of literacy, with most of the countries showing a disparity of at least 5 percent in favour of males. In the study, Dube declares that countries like Togo have higher disparities of over 15 percent in favour of males. Assié-Lumumba (2006) had earlier asserted in a study that at the first-degree level only the female enrolment rate is higher than those of males in Southern African, especially in Botswana and Namibia.

This study ensured adequate coverage of the geographic diversity in the country. For reasons of infrastructural development and population size, each location in the country is designated as a city, town, or village. “There are 2 cities and 5 towns in Botswana” (Republic of Botswana 2001, i). In terms of where the respondents were situated, a higher percentage of women (65 percent) than men (58 percent) lived in the city, while more men (17.4 percent) lived in towns and villages (25 percent) than women (15 percent) in towns and villages (21 percent). A large majority of respondents living in urban centres enjoyed a much better and richer information environment than those living in rural locations where information environments cannot be favourably compared with those in urban areas. Table 4 provides further details.

Table 4.

Gender and location distribution of study sample: cross-tabulation

Gender and social roles

The relationships between gender and each of the major social roles of the respondents (parent, worker, community leader) were cross-tabulated and chi-square tests performed on the cross-tabulations to determine the level of significance. Table 5 shows that gender was significantly related only to the social role of respondents as parents (X² = 9.501, df = 1, p < .05). No significant difference was found between males and females in the two other social roles.

Table 6 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of gender and the social role of respondents as parents. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (gender) and the column (social role) variables are independent of one another (that is, have no relationship between them). A comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values and that more female respondents than expected said “yes” to performing the social role of parent, while fewer males than expected said “yes.” The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between gender and the performance of the parent social role. The finding seems to corroborate the fact that females tend to play the role of parent (usually as single parents) more than males in Botswana.

Table 5.

Relationship between gender and different social roles performed by respondents

Table 6.

Gender and social role (parent)

Findings in relation to the objectives: information needs

The first objective of the study was to identify the information needs of distance learners in Botswana. As such, the objective generated the research question: “What are the information needs of distance learners in Botswana?” In addressing this question, several options were made available in the questionnaire for the respondents to choose from. The option “subjects relating to their course of study” was topmost in the area of their information needs. The option attracted a total of 273 respondents (75 percent). The thirst to acquire greater skill in the use of ICTs—for example, use of the Internet—was seen as the second priority area. A total of 218 respondents (60 percent) indicated this option as an information need area. The remaining information need areas indicated by about half of the respondents include information on tests, examinations, and residential sessions/periods (51.6 percent) and the development of information searching skills (50.8 percent). In a descending order the information need areas that attracted less than half of the total respondents include: access to a help line (41.2 percent); making information-based decisions (31.3 percent); and the need for specialized information (29.7 percent).

Table 7.

Relationship between gender and information need areas

An attempt was also made to establish the relationship between gender and what the learners would consider to be their information need areas. The variables were cross-tabulated and chi-square tests performed. Table 7 indicates that gender was significantly related only to “making information-based decisions,” among other possible options that the distance learners would consider as information need areas (X² = 8.105, df = 1, p < .05). No significant difference was found between male and female in the other information need areas.

Table 8.

Relationship between gender and making Information-based decisions (cross-tabulation)

In Table 8, the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of gender and making an information-based decision as an information need area are shown. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (gender) and the column variables (information need areas) are not associated with one another (that is, there are no relationships between them). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values. While fewer female respondents than expected responded in the affirmative (yes) to the information need area of making information-based decisions, more male respondents than expected said “yes” (they would need information for making information-based decisions). The conclusion drawn, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between gender and the information need area of making information-based decisions. This finding implies that male distance learners tend to have a greater need to make information-based decisions than females.

Several authors, such as Kanpur Singh (2002) and COL (2003), among others, have expressed views on what should constitute the basic library and information services that distance learners need. Of particular relevance to distance learners in Botswana are the information needs expressed by COL. COL affirms that the basic information services that distance learners need, among others, are developing ways to apply the information gleaned and to make sound information-based decisions. However, it is observed in this study the latter—that is, making information-based decisions—was found more among male and urban-located distance learners than among women and rural-based learners. Specifically, the findings indicate that gender and the locational characteristics of distance learners do have implications for types of learning-related decisions made as well as for the nature of information needed by the distance learners. One potential reason for the constraint among women was that there was a tendency for women, among other social roles they played, to get consumed by the single-parenting role more than men. Jo James, Mike Hallas, and Michelle Blake (2011) outline several decision-making approaches including: making a random choice, following tradition, going “by the book,” going by experience, using gut feelings, and making a systematic comparison of the options. Apparently alluding to the rational decision-making model developed by Charles Kepner and Benjamin Tregoe (1997) on the last of the above six approaches, the Chartered Management Institute (2014) itemized a framework of five stages to take lucid decisions. The stages are (1) define the decision and establish objectives; (2) clarify and define the objectives; (3) gather information and generate options; (4) evaluate options; and (5) make a final decision. For any decision where it is worth investing time and resources in identifying the best answer, female distance learners in Botswana should seek assistance, including counselling, to mitigate the burden of their social role to help them make information-based decisions.

Meeting the information needs of distance learners

The second objective of the study was set out to determine how the information needs of distance learners are met. Consequently, the second research question was: “How do distance learners meet their information needs?” In addressing the question, several questions were raised. In their response to how they obtained the information needed to prepare their assignments, tests, examinations, and so on, the majority of the respondents (341, constituting 93.7 percent) indicated that they used their modules and study packages. The use of the Internet came a distant second with 238 respondents (65.4 percent). This was followed by the “I discuss with colleagues” option with 229 respondents subscribing to it (62.9 percent). Other options used to obtain information needed to prepare their assignments and so on included: asking for assistance from expert or knowledgeable people 41.8 percent (n = 152); approaching the coordinator or agent of the institution 19.8 percent (n = 72); listening to radio/television 14.3 percent (n = 52); and speaking to, or writing, a subject librarian 8.8 percent (n = 32). It is important to note that eight respondents specified “others” in their responses. Five of them indicated they would borrow books from the library or from past and present students, two said they would buy prescribed books, and one respondent said he/she obtained information needed “through email to and from the lecturer/librarian,” indicating that email can be used as a tool to conduct reference services and deliver documents where a traditional face-to-face interview is not possible.

An effort was made to establish the relationships between gender and other sources used by distance learners to meet their information needs. The variables were cross-tabulated and chi-square tests performed. Table 9 indicates that gender was significantly related only to the use of email as an information source (X² = 7.021, df = 1, p < .05). No significant difference was found between males and females in the other information sources.

Table 9.

Relationship between gender and how information is obtained (information sources)

Table 10.

Relationship between gender and information sources (email) (cross-tabulation)

Table 10 shows the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of gender and the use of email as an information source. The expected counts in the cells of the table are based on the assumption that the row (gender) and the column (information source) variables do not depend on one another (that is, there are no relationships between them). Comparison of the observed with the expected counts indicates that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values and that fewer female respondents than expected said “yes” to email as an information source, while more males than expected said “yes.” It is therefore concluded that a significant relationship exists between gender and the use of email as an information source. The findings suggest that more males than females use email. Gopakumar and Baradol (2009) observe that even though many articles are now available in electronic format within article databases that are available through the library website, those articles that are not available electronically may be requested via document delivery services and emailed to the students. It is imperative that female distance learners in Botswana be encouraged in the same way as their male counterparts to make good use of the emailing system and enjoy the full benefit of the services, including document delivery services that can be provided using the facility.

When checked against the location, the finding confirms that the Internet is more accessible, available, and affordable in cities and towns than in villages. Alison Head (2007) observes how recent research has made claims about students’ reliance on the Internet for academic research over their use of campus libraries. In a study by Hanlie Liebenberg, Yuraisha Chetty and Paul Prinsloo (2012) at the UNISA, results show that 91 percent of students who participated online do have regular access to the Internet. By comparison, 46 percent of students who completed the paper-based survey have access, with 54 percent not having access. In another survey in Nigeria, Oyeniyi Akande (2011) reveals that 70 percent of the respondents of distance education surveyed used computers with Internet facilities, though the majority of the respondents were irregular users of computers. As indicated earlier, in the current study, access to the Internet and, consequently, electronic resources, was ranked highest among distance learners.

Information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana

The third objective of the study aimed at exploring the information resources and services available to distance learners in Botswana. The research question drawn from the objective states: “What information resources and services are available to distance learners in Botswana?” To elicit information and respond to the issue, the respondents were asked several questions. Believing that distance learners should be able to access information in a variety of formats, they were asked their preferred information format from the three options of print, electronic, and audio visual that were presented to them. The results show that out of the three choices the majority of respondents (216 or 59.3 percent) significantly prefer the print format irrespective of gender, 123 respondents (33.7 percent) preferred electronic, and 24 (6.6 percent) preferred audio-visual. These findings hopefully shed light on the information format that distance learners desire. The cross-tabulation reveals that the significance level of X² value was 0.021, which is less than 0.05. This means that the distance learners in Botswana, regardless of gender, significantly preferred an information format from the three available choices (print, electronic, and audio-visual formats).

In addition to the institutions’ efforts to make libraries accessible as national resource centres (with additional costs in some cases), the UB Library and its branches remain a significant and extensive adjunct to distance students seeking to meet their information needs. Table 11 shows that gender was significantly related only to reference services (X² = 12.909, df = 1, p < .05) and journals (X² = 4.298, df = 1, p < .05), with men preferring both reference services and journals over women, as explained below. No significant difference was found between gender and other library and information services.

Tables 12 and 13 show the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of gender and information resources (listed above) used in the past

Table 11.

Relationship between gender and library and information services used in the past year

Table 12.

Gender and information services used in the past year (reference services) (cross-tabulation)

Table 13.

Gender and information services used in the past year (journals) (cross-tabulation)

year. A comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values and that in Table 12 more males than expected said “yes” to using reference services as an information source in the past year, while fewer females than expected said “yes.” The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a significant relationship between gender and library and information resources used. Similarly, in Table 13, more males than expected said “yes” to using journals and fewer females than expected said “yes.” The findings seem to suggest that men use these library and information facilities more than women distance learners in Botswana.

Another question raised reveals that most respondents, irrespective of gender, still prefer to travel to the library in person over other methods, such as using email, short message service (SMS) text messages, web searches, and so on. This indicates that traditional library services are not out of fashion. These results seem to be at variance with the understanding in some library associations, for example, the Association of College and Research Libraries (2008), that traditional library services designed for on-campus users will not meet the requirements of distance learners. This is similar to the findings of Sandra Tury, Lyn Robinson, and David Bawden (2015), who, in their study of the information-seeking behaviour of distance learners at the University of London, observed that even though 54 percent of students did not have access to any local library, most of those who did used libraries close to where they lived, mainly university libraries. In their preliminary investigation, Tury, Robinson, and Bawden confirm that students said that public libraries were used as a place to study. In circumstances where distance learners would like to use electronic resources like the Internet, their location may have some significant impact on their accessibility to the Internet. This probably accounts for the distance learners’ rebound to reference services and hardcopy journals. Thus, it seems that as libraries increasingly move from services that are traditionally considered inadequate in many distance-learning environments, to services that are technology enabled, the more distance learners in Botswana will not let the old system go. Even though Amelie Gagnon (2010) believes that females are playing a much stronger role and that disparity is increasingly favouring women in tertiary education, the results from this study indicate that women still have a fairly long way to go. Besides playing very active roles, which the culture has imposed on them (for example, caring for older parents and sick relations), they also seem to have been hampered by the social role of single parenthood, even as they have their jobs to juggle.

Challenges confronting distance learners in Botswana

Another objective of this study was aimed at identifying the challenges faced by distance learners in Botswana. In examining this question, several probing issues were raised with the respondents. These included the distance they had to travel before getting to the nearest university library or information centre, the source of light used where they lived, the circumstances of their domestic study, their fears, and the barriers that affect their use of information sources, among others.

With respect to the distance they had to travel to the nearest university library or information centre to meet their information needs, 62.9 percent of the students in all four institutions, irrespective of gender, indicated they travelled between one and ten kilometres, 12.9 percent lived at a distance of 11–30 kilometres, 4.1 percent would need to cover a distance that ranged from 301 to 500 kilometres, and another 3.8 percent travelled a distance of 501 kilometres and above to get to the nearest university library/information centre to meet their information needs. Depending on where the respondents live, the time taken to get to the nearest library could range from about five minutes (for those in the city) to more than six hours (for those in a town or village).

Since distance education is essentially self-directed learning and not the face-to-face method of the conventional system, it was considered necessary to probe into the source of light used by respondents in their homes as well to study, invariably, as they self-direct their studies. The type of light used might have some impact on their accessibility to, and use of, information resources and services for their studies. Usually, the city and town dwellers enjoyed the advantage of electricity. The majority of respondents (97.5 percent) used a permanent electricity supply; only 3.6 percent claimed they used cylinder gas; 2.2 percent used battery power; and 1.9 percent specified using candles and/or paraffin lamps. Only one respondent ticked “other” as source of light without clearly specifying it.

The relationship between gender and each of the major barriers affecting the respondents’ use of information sources were cross-tabulated and chi-square tests performed on the cross-tabulations. Table 14 shows that gender was significantly related only to the lack of a well-equipped library (X² = 7.541, df = 1, p < .05) and lack and cost of equipment (X² = 4.372, df = 1, p < .05) as barriers to using information sources. No significant difference was found between males and females in the remaining barriers.

Table 14.

Relationship between gender and barriers affecting distance learners’ use of information sources

Tables 15 and 16 show the expected and observed counts in the cross-tabulation of gender and the lack of a well-equipped library as well as the lack and cost of equipment acting as barriers affecting the use of information sources by the respondents. A comparison of the observed with the expected counts shows that the observed values are significantly different from the expected values and that more male respondents than expected said “yes” (they had experienced the barriers of the “lack of a well-equipped library” and lack/cost of equipment), while fewer females than expected said “yes.” The conclusion here is that there is a significant relationship between gender and the lack of a well-equipped library and the lack and cost of equipment as barriers. The findings show that more females were in locations where they could access a well-equipped library than males.

Table 15.

Gender and barriers affecting use of information sources (lack of well-equipped library) (cross-tabulation)

Table 16.

Gender and Barriers affecting use of information sources (lack and cost of equipment) Crosstab

The study reveals that fewer respondents in the city and more in towns and villages indicated the lack of a well-equipped library as a barrier. Table 4 confirms more men than women lived in towns and villages. This finding confirms the advantage of having the well-equipped UB Library (UBL) and its branches in the cities. As established, the UB Library has become a significant and extensive adjunct to distance students seeking to meet their information needs. The UB Library seems more beneficial to females located in the cities than men in towns and villages.

Conclusion and recommendations

Armed with the capacity to take knowledge and training to the marginalized, isolated, underprivileged, and the unreachable, ODL also has the capability to assist in gender parity. However, some barriers imposed by socio-cultural effects still exist, which ODL may not be able to resolve easily. UNICEF (2015) confirms that while gender parity has improved, barriers and bottlenecks around gender disparities and discrimination remain in place. The general belief also has it that information is of great value in educational and research institutions as well as in other environments where learning takes place. This is demonstrated in the prominence given to information resources and services in institutions of higher learning. This study has established some imbalances for the females, especially in some notable areas where a comparison is drawn. For instance, relating to the first objective of the study, it was found that male distance learners tend to have a greater need to make information-based decisions than females. In the second objective that attempts to determine how the information needs of distance learners are met, the study established that a significant relationship exists between gender and the use of email as an information source, with the result that more males than females use email. In the third objective, the study also established a significant relationship between gender and library and information resources used. The findings also suggest that more male distance learners in Botswana use reference services and journals than females.

What then could have accounted for the seemingly lopsidedness against female respondents? It is observed that gender disparity is essentially a function of socio-cultural effects stemming from attitudes and beliefs about men and women. The study suggests the significant social role of parents (usually single parents) that females tend to play more than males in Botswana is partly responsible. Another barrier that appears to negatively affect female distance learners attaining their full potential is the strong cultural norms that impose on women the responsibility of taking care of the elderly and feeble family members. In a related study at the Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK), Margaret Taplin and Olugbemiro Jegede (2001) allude to the fact that higher education might be particularly problematic for female students since many of the adult women who do take it up find it necessary to balance their studies with multiple roles in the home and the workplace. They assert that many women are expected to do all of the housework and take responsibility for childcare and, consequently, have fewer hours of free time than men, both during the weekend and on week-days. They affirm that such things as domestic organization and family and domestic interruptions can affect women’s studies. In this regard, Taplin and Jegede advocate for differentiated treatment of male and female students at the OUHK to maximize the achievement of both groups. Perhaps this recommendation could benefit distance learners in Botswana as well.

Other reasons that could account for the disparity and help to remove the barriers or assist in addressing the imbalances are included in the recommendations offered in the following list.

• • Adequate promotion and marketing is required for doorstep library and information services that are available for utilization. This marketing strategy may encourage female learners to make information-based decisions.

• • There is a need to make computing and information literacy skills mandatory for distance learners, with appropriate support mechanisms in place especially for the disadvantaged.

• • The necessary provision of information resources and services through the establishment of study centres in strategic locations especially in towns and villages across the country is imperative. Not only does this have the potential to benefit all students who live in such locations, but it will also be especially helpful for men.

• • Distance teaching institutions should establish collaborative partnerships with viable institutions, schools, or public libraries for their remote students to have easy access to materials and technologies.

• • Social media platforms and other ICTs like mobile phones, SMS texts, and instant messaging can be employed to more easily contact distance learners, especially women, in their various locations.

• • Distance learners should be encouraged to make use of librarians and their offered services, such as reference services. Librarians should familiarize themselves with the distance learners at the commencement of their studies.

• • Even though the information world is going digital, the distance-learning environment in Botswana and Africa in general still subscribes to print format. Print formats should therefore not be discarded, even as digital modes of communication are encouraged.

• • Counselling and mentoring programs should be put in place to help distance learners (especially women) overcome their fears and challenges. Online or e-counselling should also be encouraged.