Comments on Hypothetical Extrasensory Perception (ESP)

Leorrordo, Vol. 9, pp. 306-307. Perganion Press 1976. Printed in Great Britain COMMENTS ON HYPOTHETICAL EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) Richard 1. Land* 1. Introduction Parapsychology or the subject ‘beyond’ the science psychology has attracted considerable attention in recent years, especially in the U S A . and Britain, where there are numerous believers in extrasensory perception (ESP). ESP includes: (1) the direct transmission of thoughts between human brains (telepathy), (2) knowledge of events that have occurred or will occur that is obtained by an unknown means of communication (clairvoyance and precognition) and (3) production of physical effects solely by means of an unknown mental process (psychokinesis) [l, 21. In the U.S.A.in 1969, after several years of effort by ESP enthusiasts, the Parapsychological Association (founded in 1957) was granted affiliated status in the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) [3]. The grant of affiliation does not imply that the AAAS found the existence of ESP as proven; the AAAS only decided that research on the subject should be given a fair hearing. Before preparing this Note, I read or consulted numerous texts dealing with ESP, among which I found Refs. 4-10 especially worthy of attention. 2. Errors in perception and understanding science There are ways of examining the validity of the experimental evidence offered to prove the existence of ESP. The primary factor to keep in mind is the ease with which perceived events can be interpreted erroneously. Entertainment provided by magicians depends in part on this factor [ll]. A very interesting report was prepared over 20 years ago by Irving Langmuir under the title ‘Pathological Science’ 1121. The bulk of the report deals with physicists’ announcements of discoveries that, to their misfortune, proved to be fallacious , because they allowed their wishes and beliefs to unintentionally influence their perceptions. Langmuir commented: ‘To me, the thing is extremely interesting, that men perfectly honest, enthusiasticover their work, can so completely fool themselves.’ He drew up the following list of symptoms of pathological science: ‘(1) The maximum effect that is observed in an experiment is produced by a causative agent of barely detectable intensity, and the magnitude of the effect is substantially independent of the intensity of the cause. (2) The effect is of a magnitude that remains close to the limit of detactability; or, many measurements are necessary because of the very low statistical significance of the results. (3) Claims of great accuracy. (4) Fantastic theories contrary to experience. * Engineer and artist, 10 Trapelo Road, Belrnont, MA 02178, U.S.A. (Received 12 March 1976.) (5) Criticisms are met by ad hoc excuses thought up on the spur of the moment. (6) Ratio of supporters to critics rises up to somewhere near 50% and then falls gradually to oblivion’ [12, p.71. Langmuir had several meetings and corresponded with J. B. Rhine, who has been interested in the possibilities of ESP since the 1930’s and is a believer in its existence. Langmuir cautioned him on the dangers of following the path of pathological science. It became apparent to Langmuir that Rhine was using several selection techniques to support the success of his ‘experiments’ after their results were known. Those who have investigated ESP have generally approached the subject on the conceptual basis that the quantity of observations can overcome shortcomings in their quality. But one does not gain any knowledge about the force of gravity only by repeatedly counting the number of times objects fall towards the surface of the Earth when dropped. One needs to determine by observation, experiment and analysis the factors involved , so that the knowledge obtained can be applied, for example in the design of parachutes and in the accurate prediction of space craft trajectories. Another danger encountered in the sciences is the one where experimenters, if they are not very careful, obtain precise data on measuring devices rather than on what the devices are supposed to measure. The parallel for this trap in ESP experiments occurs when care is given to the character of the researcher rather than to that of the person claiming ESP powers, although, necessarily, the honesty of both parties is essential. A corollary condition requires awareness of the...