Fairies & Witches

Jack Zipes, the foremost American scholar of the world of fairy tales, opens his book with a brief reference to recent interest in fairy tales in scholarship and the genre’s proliferation in the media which demonstrate the unique impact fairy tales have on our lives.

Zipes states that it is impossible to provide any date or, for that matter, any approximation of a date for the “birth” of the fairy tale, a genre which depends on “the symbiotic relationship of oral and literary currents.” This leads to an exploration of the origins of human communication in which it is argued that all narratives are driven by the urge to be in power, to be relevant and are hence elitist. It is emphasised that the precursors of fairy tales related to belief systems, represented shared experience preserved in the oral tradition.

Tracing themes of conflict, notably as they cast a light on the dark side of human life, Zipes cautiously points to Sumerian precursors and then pays full attention to the Greek fables attributed, rightly or wrongly, to Aesop (c. 600 b. C.). He sees fables as stories of animals involved in human conflicts and he tries to identify fairy tale elements. He goes in depth concerning the literary versions of Puss-in-boots from the 16th and 17th centuries the origins of which reach back to India.

Employing Richard Dawkins’s theory of memes (a meme being a unit in cultural transmission), Zipes suggests that fairy tales are created out of pools of memes and are instruments used to preserve instinctual morality in changing environments.

The French term conte de fées, “fairy tale,” was coined by Baroness d’Aulnoy for stories she wrote and narrated in the salons of Paris in 1690-1710. She recycled much material that existed both in the oral tradition as well as in literature and Roman-Greco myths and tales. So did her contemporaries, mostly women who appropriated narratives involving fairies and other fantastic beings in alternate worlds outside the confines of the state and the church which, in their tales, were portrayed as weak.

It is argued that the spectacles of Italian opera exerted some influence on the fantastic narratives, and Zipes refers to d’Aulnoy’s own life (and those of many other women) for the importance of midwives, nannies as real-life fairies who were of paramount importance as protectors of girls and women in many cultures.

Homing in on the French author Charles Perrault’s Bluebeard, Zipes notes that this story, possibly the first written narrative about a serial killer, has a life of its own and is more well-known than the author. Elements from the story had been circulating long before 1695. It has been remade thousands of times both in literature and in other media. Zipes sees this as “part of a discursive process of remakings within the larger genre of the fairy tale.” In the same fashion that tales should be understood in their contemporary context, remakes should be so too. This is illustrated in a discussion of the French director Catherine Breillat’s Bluebeard (2009). It is concluded that whereas the first tale bears the imprint Perrault’s personality, experience and age, Breillat subtly changes Perrault’s male dominance and female curiosity in her film. Retellings of the theme will continue to be made as long as there are serial killers but they will also reflect changed mores.

Zipes turns attention to the nature of fairies and witches. He considers them as the mimetic seeds spread by pagan goddesses that have been transformed into benevolent and malevolent powers by misogynistic cultural processes. With an excursus on the Russian narrologist Vladimir Propp in which Zipes emphasises that Propp’s research was never subject to Soviet censorship, he homes in on the Slavonic, specifically Russian character of Baba Yaga. Baba Yaga appears in thousands of tales as an unpredictable power which seems to have antecedents in “Mother Earth” and who metes out gifts, rewards...