Persistence in Chinese Culture: A Case Study of Hung Ch'eng-Ch'ou (1593-1665)

27 Vol. 10, No. 1 Late Imperial ChinaJune 1989 PERSISTENCE IN CHINESE CULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF HUNG CH'ENG-CH'OU (1593-1665)* Wang Chen-main Introduction More and more scholars of seventeenth-century China have begun to pay attention to the fact that the great majority of Ming Chinese scholarofficials surrendered to the Manchus and served the Ch'ing state.1 Yet few historians have offered a comprehensive interpretation of this phenomenon.2 It would be simplistic to judge the thousands of Chinese scholars who surrendered to the Manchus as traitors and those who did not surrender as true loyalists. In fact, many, or at least some, of those who changed their allegiance and helped the Ch'ing build their great enterprise were renowned scholars of high principles. Did those who surrendered suffer from any inner conflict over the concept of loyalty?3 Or did they have some justification to explain their switching sides? If so, then, * The origins of this paper date back to my dissertation. I take this opportunity to thank the members of my dissertation committee, William Schultz, Jing-shen Tao and Charles Hedtke. The paper was presented at the Association of Asian Studies in Boston 1988. I would also like to thanks the panel discussants, Frederick Wakeman Jr. and Jerry Dennerline and other participants who gave comments and suggestions. I owe much to the reader of Laie Imperial China who gave incisive editorial comments. I also want to express my gratitude to Darrel Doty for kindly reading and polishing the manuscript. Last, but not least, my thanks go to the editors of Late Imperial China for their kindness and encouragement. 1 This issue is clearly presented in Wakeman's monumental 1985 work. Other related works in English include Dennerline 1981 and Strove 1984, as well as Tsao 1965; Peterson 1968-69; Wu 1970; Kessler 1971; Atwell 1975; Davidson 1975; Oxnam 1975; Wakeman 1975; Shore 1976; Fisher 1977-78; Chang and Chang 1978; Beattie 1979; Lui 1979; Peterson 1979; Langlois 1980; Crossley 1983; Wang 1984; Strove 1985. In Chinese see Sun 1957; Sun 1974 and 1975; Tu 1976; Huang 1978; Wang 1979; Wang and Wei 1979; Li 1980; Ho 1981; Shao 1982; Wang 1982; Li 1983; Liu 1986. In Japanese see Kanda 1972; Okamoto 1976; Watanabe 1976; Kawakatsu 1976; Hashimoto 1984. For further historiographical details, please see Strove 1985; Wang 1985 and 1986. 2 Roger Des Forges in two studies on the story of Li Yen has argued that this story should be valued as an allegory for the rise and fall of the Shun regime and the larger transition from Ming to Ch'ing. See, Des Forges 1982 and 1984. 3 A few articles have explored the sense of loyalty in pre-modern China, such as Mote 1960; Wang 1962; and Liu 1972. 28Wang Chen-main was their justification consistent with their practice? Or did they follow unspoken principles throughout this transitional period? These and other, related questions have not yet been adequately examined or answered. This study of Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou (October 16, 1593-April 3, 1665) will offer an opportunity to explore some of these questions; he is one of the most important individuals of the transitional period who participated as an official in both the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties.4 Moreover throughout this period he was a participant in almost every major historical event. He participated actively in the anti-rebel campaigns of the late Ming for nine years and was widely regarded as one of the ablest Ming field commanders . In 1639 he was transferred to Liao-tung to assume command of the northeastern border defenses against the rising Manchu military threat. Hung was in command of Ming forces during their decisive encounter with the Manchus at the battle of Sung-shan. He was defeated and captured , and eventually swore allegiance to the Ch'ing in 1642. In time he became a trusted advisor to the Manchu leaders, and later as a Ch'ing official he contributed to the establishment of a Chinese-style government in Peking. He also played a key role in the Ch'ing conquest and consolidation of southeast and southwest China. Although his...