Writing Women into History: Defining Gender and Citizenship in Post-Revolutionary America

WritingWomenintoHistory: DefiningGenderandCitizenshipin Post-RevolutionaryAmerica PETERC.MESSER InMarchof1805,asMercyOtisWarrencontemplatedtheprefacetoher HistoryoftheRise,Progress,andTerminationoftheAmericanRevolu- tion,shefoundherselfintheawkwardpositionofhavingtodefendherdeci- siontowriteahistory.Warrenbeganbyacknowledgingthat"therearecer- tainappropriatedutiesassignedtoeachsex,"andthatthetaskofwritingthe historyofwarswasgenerallybelievedtobebestsuitedto"thenervousstyle ofmanlyeloquence."Shepersistedinherefforts,however,upon"recollectingthateverydomesticenjoymentdependsontheunimpairedpossessionof civilandreligiousliberty,[and]thataconcernforthewelfareofsociety oughttoglowineveryhumanbreast."WhatstandsoutinWarren'sjustificationisnottheconnectionshedrewbetweenhistoryandthepreservationof civilandreligiousliberty,atypicalviewoftheroleofhistory-writinginthe eighteenthcentury,butherinsertionofgenderintoherdefense.Warrennot onlyinformedherreadersthatshewascommentingoncontemporarypoli- ticsandculture,butthatshewasdoingsoasawoman.1 Forthemostpart,historianshavearguedthattherepublicanideology surroundingtheAmericanRevolutiondiscouragedwomensuchasWarren fromtakinganactiveroleinthedebatesoverpoliticsandculturethatdi- videdthenewnation.Eventhediscourseofrepublicanwivesandmothers, theseauthorshaveargued,ultimatelyjustifiedtheexclusionofwomenfrom 341 342/MESSER suchdiscussions.2AsRuthBlochhaspointedout,however,"theincreasing participationofearlynineteenth-centurywomenintheteachingprofession, religiousbenevolentassociations,andvoluntaryreformsocieties—activities thatleddirectlytotheearlywomen'srightsmovement—suggestanother sidetothestory."3Inordertoexplorethe"othersideofthestory"thispaper approachesthequestionofgenderinearlyAmericafromanarrative,or storytellingperspective.4Insteadoffocusingprimarilyonhowmasculinity andfemininitywereperceivedIwillexplorehowthestoriespeopletold abouttheirpastrevealwhocouldtakeonthesecharacteristicsandwithwhat consequencesforsociety.Afterindependence,historianssuchasWarrenbegan portrayingwomenashavingmadesignificantcontributionstothecreationof thenationbyenteringintothemasculineworldofpublicaffairs.Asaresult, thesehistoriescreatedacollectivememorythatencouragedreaderstoacceptwomentakinganactiveroleinpubliclife ,evenwhilethegendered languageofvirtuediscouragedthemfromdoingso.WhencomparedtoallofthechangesthattheAmericanRevolutiondid notbringtowomen'slives—thevote,propertyownership,oreasierdivorce tonamethree—thechangesinhowpeoplewroteandrememberedhistory mayseeminsignificant.Suchanassumption,Ibelieve,wouldbeamistake. Eighteenth-centuryhistoriansenvisionedtheiraccountsoftheRevolutionas ameansofpromotingnationalunityandencouragingthedevelopmentof thosevalueswhichtheysawasessentialtothesurvivaloftherepublic.5Asa result,changesinthewaytheseauthorsportrayedwomenactinginhistory, particularlyinthehistoryoftheRevolutionandtheformationoftheUnited States,wouldhavesignaledanattempttochangehowpeopleunderstood women'srelationshiptocivilsociety.Whilethesehistoriesmaynothave causedthechangesdescribedbyBloch,theydoillustratetheemergenceofa wayofthinkingthatbothlegitimatedandencouragednewrolesforwomen inthecreationandmaintenanceoftherepublic.Inmosthistoriesthistrans-formationinwomen'srolesappearedintheirnew-foundabilitytotakeonthemasculinecharacteristicsofarepublicancitizen—aprospectcolonial authorshadfoundunsettlingatbest.MercyWarren,however,wenteven further.Shechallengedthetraditionalassociationoffemininitywithpoliti- calincompetenceandarguedtìiatitendowedwomenwithanabilitytoper- ceiveproblemsfacingtherepublicthatmasculineeyesalonewouldmiss.6 WomenwerenotabsentfromthehistoriesofAmericawrittenpriorto independence,buttheyappearedprimarilyaspassiveactorswhowereal- mostentirelydevoidofanyindependentagency.Inthedescriptionsofthe foundingandestablishmentoftheNewWorldcommunitieswomenappeared primarilyinthebackground.Theyinhabitedadomesticworldthatwascom- WritingWomenintoHistory:DefiningGenderandCitizenship/343 pletelydivorcedfromthepoliticalandeconomicspheresinwhichmendeter- minedthesuccessorfailureofthecolonies.InRobertBeverley'sHistory andPresentStateofVirginia(1709),forexample,womenarrivedinthe colonyonlywhenmen"grewsensibleoftheMisfortuneofwantingWives," andaftertheyhadrejectednativewomenas"Pagans,andforfeartheyshou'd conspirewiththoseoftheirownNation,todestroytheirHusbands."Inthis account,womenplayednopartinhelpingthemenofVirginiasecuretheir plantationsbeyondagreeingtogotothecolonyandpresentingtheirprospec- tivehusbandswitha"CertificateoftheirModestyandgoodBehavior."7 Althoughmenrealizedthatwomenwerenecessaryforthesurvivalofthe colony,theysawtheirnecessityasalmostentirelybiological.Theimporta- tionofvirtuouswomenwouldensurethattheplantersbegotlegitimateheirs, butBeverleymadenoefforttoconnectthisprocesstotheestablishmentofa viablepoliticaloreconomiccommunityinVirginia.Theydidbringasense ofsecuritywiththem,butthisaroseprimarilyfromtheirdisengagementwith publicconcerns.ThewivesimportedfromEngland,unlikeNativeAmerican women,wouldnotbedrawnintotheongoingdisputesbetweentheIndians andthesettlersandthustheywouldnotcontributetothedestructionofthe colony.BeverleymadenomentionoftheabilityofEnglishwivestomakea contributiontotheeconomyortoimpartvaluesoridealstoeithertheplant- ersortheirchildrenthatwouldindependentlycontributetothelongevityor prosperityofVirginiasociety.8 ThomasPrince'sChronologicalHistoryofNewEngland(1736)offered aslightlydifferentportraitofthewomenwhoaccompaniedtheirhusbandsto PlymouthColony;however,theyremainedthepassiveobserversofhistory andnotitsactivecreators.Princedescribed"Mrs.JohnWinthrop,"forex- ample,as"adesirableconsort,"who"cheerfullyleftherparentstoservethe LordJesuswithherhusbandinaterriblewilderness."9IfMrs.JohnWinthrop madeanycontributiontothedecisiontogotoNewEngland,ortoher husband'sactivitiesoncethere,Princemadenomentionofit.Asaresult,we areleftwithanimageofamanactingasthefounderofthecolony,accompa- nied,butinnoobviouswayaided,byhiswife,whosepraiseworthinessrested entirelyonheracceptanceofherdependenceonJesusandherhusband.Puritantheologymayhaveemphasizedtheimportanceoffamilygovernance andpartnershipbetweenhusbandandwifebutthesesharedresponsibilities didnotextendbeyondthewallsofthehousehold.10Theworldinhabitedby womenremainedseparatefromthepublicdebatesthattheirhusbandsen- gagedinoverthecreationandmaintenanceofNewEnglandsociety. Women,ofcourse,didplayanessentialroleintheestablishmentofthe NewWorldcolonies,bothasthehelpmeetsoftheirhusbandsandasthe 344/MESSER producersofgoodsandservicesthattheirfamiliesneededtosurvive."The mannerinwhichcolonialhistoriansacknowledgedtiiesecontributionstended tominimizeratherthancelebratetheirimportancetothecommunity.John Lawson,asurveyoremployedbytheproprietorsofNorthCarolinaandau-thorofANewVoyagetoCarolina(1714),lamented"thatColonymight nowhavebeeninfarbetterConditionthanitis,"butforthelackofindustry amongthemen.Significantly,NorthCarolinaremainedinthisunderdevel- opedstatedespitethebesteffortsofitswomen,whomthesurveyorpraised as"themostindustriousSexinthatPlace."12AccordingtoLawson,women actingontheirown,nomatterhowdiligently,couldnotovercomemasculine weakness,incompetence,orbadluck.Women,accordingtothisportrait, sufferedthroughhistoryaccordingtotheactionsoftheirmalerelations,and hadlittle,ifany,independentpowertoimproveeithertheirownlivesortheir communities. Notsurprisingly,inthiscontext,colonialhistoriansjudgedtheentryof womenintothemasculinepublicworldasadangerousandultimatelyde- structiveact.DanielNeal,inhisHistoryofNewEngland(1742),described AnneHutchinson,oneoftheleadersofthedissidentAntimonianmovement, asawomanpossessinga"boldandmasculinespirit"whoseactionssub- vertedthegoodorderofthecolony.13Nealextendedhiscriticismstoinclude notonlyHutchinsonbutalsothe"Licentiouswomen"whodiscussedher ideaswitìitheirhusbands.Inthisaccount,womenwhotookupanddiscussed religiousquestions,whetherinpublicorinprivate,violatedestablishedgenderrolesandconsequentlythreatenedthestabilityofthecommunity .Simi- larly,ThomasPrincearguedthatthePuritanmigrationfromEnglandtothe colonieshaditrootsin"therisingpowerofmeyoungqueen[HenriettaMaria], averyzealousandactivePapist,theextremefondnessoftheking[CharlesI] forher,andthepersecutingspiritofbishopLaudunderher."14Thecontrast betweenHenriettaMariaandMrs.Winthropisparticularlytelling.Theyoung queenofEnglandhadzealouslyembracedtheanti-PuritancrusadeofArch- bishopWilliamLaud,imposingherwillonboththenationandherhusband. ThewifeofthePuritanleaderwastheantithesisofthequeen,uninterestedin publicaffairsandconcernedonlywithobeyingthewishesofherhusband andJesus.ComparingtherolesthesetwowomenplayedinPrince'shistory suggeststhathesawtheexclusion,orvoluntarywithdrawal,ofwomenfrom publiclifeasoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsofNewEngland—some- thingthatmadeitsuperiortoacorruptOldEngland. TheAmericanRevolutionforcedauthorstoreconsiderthestarkdivide tìieyhadcreatedbetweenthecivicaffairsofmenandthedomesticresponsi- bilitiesofwomen.Inthe1760sandearly1770scolonialresistancetoBritish policiesconsistedprimarilyofattemptstocurbcolonialconsumptionofBritish WritingWomenintoHistory:DefiningGenderandCitizenship/345 goods.Thisstrategyeffectivelypoliticizedwomen'sdomesticresponsibili- tiesasthepurchasersofimportedgoodsandthecoordinatorsofhomemanu- facture.15Patriotauthors,asaresult,setaboutconvincingAmericansthat thesurvivaloftheirrightsandlibertiesdependedonencouragingwomento takeaninterestinpublicaffairs.ThomasPaine's"AnOccasionalLetterto theFemaleSex,"publishedinthePennsylvaniaMagazine,condemned"that moroseman,[who]whileheimposesdutiesuponwomen,woulddeprive memofthesweetsofpublicesteem,andinexactingvirtuesfrommem,would makeitacrimetoaspiretohonour."Inastrikingreversalfromthenarrative offeredbyPrinceandNeal,Painechidedallwhowoulddiscouragewomen's aspirationsforthe"sweetsofpublicesteem"and"honour."The"morose" meninAmericastoodinmarkedcontrasttotiioseofmoreenlightenedcoun- trieswhere"publichonourshavebeenpaidtowomen.Arthaserected[to] themmonuments,Eloquencehascelebratedtheirvirtues,andHistoryhas collectedwhatevercouldadorntheircharacters."16Thusthematurityorle- gitimacyofNewWorldsocietynowdependedonencouraging,ratherthan discouraging,womentotakeaninterestinpublicaffairsandcelebratingthe achievementsofthosewhodid. AsthestruggleagainstGreatBritaincontinued,Patriotauthorsproved increasinglywillingtoaccordwomenthepublicrolecalledforbyPaine.The UnitedStatesMagazine,forexample,offereditsreadersadescriptionofthe "ParadiseofFemalePatriotism"toillustratetheimportantrolewomenhadplayed,andmustcontinuetoplay,intheRevolution.Theinhabitantsofthis gardenincludednotablessuchas"Mrs.JohnandSamuelAdams"aswellas "thoseunhappymaidsthatareyet,fromthebiasofconnection,underwrong impressionsoftheircountry'scause"butwhowouldgainadmittanceby future"virtuousdeeds."17Thelastlinesarethemostindicativeofatransfor- mationintherepresentationofwomen'spublicroles.The"unhappymaids"describedbythisauthorwouldeventuallycometounderstandtheirnation's politicalcausebyovercomingthebiasesimpartedtothembyeithertheir parentsorhusbands.ThesuccessoftheRevolution,accordingtothisauthor, dependedinnosmallpartonwomenenteringthepublicworldofrevolution- arypoliticsunencumberedbythebeliefsoftheirhusbands,fathersandbroth- ers.Women,inthisaccount,hadtheabilitynotonlytounderstandandacton politicalquestions,butalsotodosoontheirownterms.Whiletheauthor's referencetoMrs.JohnandSamuelAdamsindicatesthatwomenstillderived theiridentityfromtheirmaleconnections,thisstatusnolongerprecluded theirinvolvementorinterestinthepublicaffairsofthecommunity. ThewritingsofLoyalisthistoriansofferusanindicationofthedegreeto whichtheRevolutionencourageditssupporterstoreconsiderthepublicrole ofwomen.FortheseauthorstheparticipationofwomeninmeRevolutionary 346/MESSER movementbecameanindicationoftheabsurdityofthePatriotcause.One proponentofsuchaviewwasPeterOliver,ajusticeontheSupremeCourtof MassachusettsBayColony.Hispersonalandvitriolicaccountoftheorigins oftheAmericanRevolutionusedtheWhigs'politicizationofwomenand theirdomesticspheretolampoontherevolutionaries.Oliverpointedoutthat theregulationstheSonsofLibertyimposedonfuneralshadworkedlargely becausetheyenabled"theLadies...toexhibittheirShareofSpite,&theirSilkGowns."Similarly,hedescribedhowastarringandfeatheringbecame acommonmeansofpunishingsuspectedcollaboratorswiththeBritish"the fairSexthrewofftheirDelicacy,andadoptedthisnewFashion."18Women,inbothoftheseexamples,appearedtobefarmoreconcernedwithfashion thanwithanypoliticalquestion.The"fairSex"embracedthePatriotcause becauseitallowedthemtheopportunitytodisplaytheirfineryorparticipate inwhattheysawasfashionableactivity.Consequently,accordingtoOliver, thecolonists'causerestedonfemininewhimasmuchasonreasonedargu- ment,andwasthusexposedtotheworldasthemorallybankruptmovementhebelievedittobe. WhilenotasimpassionedasOliver'saccount,thehistorieswrittenby otherLoyalistsreflectedasimilarpointofview.Aswiththecolonialac- counts,womenprimarilyappearedinthebackgroundofthesehistoriesas wivesandmothersandemergedinthepublicworldonlytocreateunrest. OneofthefewwomentoappearinAlexanderHewatt'shistoryofSouth CarolinaandGeorgiawasanIndian,marriedtoawhitetrader,wholedarevoltoftheCreeknationinSouthCarolina.Similarly,SamuelPetersar- guedthatNewHaven's"BlueLaws"threatenedtosubvertsocialorderby allowingwomentotestifyagainsttheirhusbands.AnneHutchinsondidbe- comeatragicfigureinGeorgeChalmers'sIntroductiontotheCausesofthe AmericanRevolt(1781),butonlybecauseherfaterevealedthehypocrisy ofthePuritans,andtheirwillingnesstomimic"thepopishclergyinthedarkestages ."ThomasHutchinson,inhisHistoryoftheColonyandProvinceof MassachusettsBay(1764)wasnotsokindtohisgreat-greatgrandmother. HisaccountoftheAntimoniancontroversyechoedNeal'scondemnationof "MrsHutchinson,"whose"meetingofthesisters"proposed"doctrinesand opinionswhichinvolvedthecolonyindisputesandcontentions"which"had liketohaveproducedruininbothchurchandstate."19 Inshort,Loyalisthistorianssharedtheircolonialcounterparts'hesitancy todescribewomenaspositivepublicagentsintheformationofthecolonial society.Atbesttheappearanceofwomeninpublicrevealedtheirhelpless-nessinamisguidedmalesociety.Andatworst,itwasaprimeindicatorof disorderedcommunitiesandmisplacedpriorities.Incontrasttoatleastsome WritingWomenintoHistory:DefiningGenderandCitizenship/347 oftheirWhigcounterparts,Oliver,andtheotherLoyalists,didnothaveto cometogripswithanexpandedroleforwomenasapreconditionforthe successoftheirpoliticalagenda.SupportfortheCrowndidnothingeon women'sobservanceofboycotts,andtotheextentthatitrequiredwomento operatefarmsorbusinesseswhilehusbandswereaway,itdidsoonlyasa resultofthedisruptiveactionsofthePatriots.Inotherwords,Loyalistau- thorshadnoneedtoreconsidertheroleofwomeninpubliclifeintheir historiesandthusdidnot. AmongthePatriots,ontheotherhand,women'sactiveparticipationin thestruggleagainstGreatBritainforcedthesupportersofAmericaninde-pendencetoreconsiderhowtheysawwomeninboththepresentandthe past.20AcontributortothePennsylvaniaPacket,forexample,arguedmat AmericanwomenhadmadeaninvaluablecontributionbothtotheRevolu- tionandtothecauseofwomentheworldover: Itisneedlesstorepeattheencomiumsthathavealreadybeengiventothe femalesfortheirexertions.Everywhigmindmustbesensiblethatthey deservethehighestpraise.Eventhosewhoareenemiestothecausemust admit,thatthemeansofservingitdohonourtothesex.Thewomenof everypartoftheglobeareunderobligationstothoseofAmerica,forhav- ingshewnthatfemalesarecapableofthehighestpoliticalvirtue.Thoseof posteritywillalsoacknowledgethattheydeservehappinessandgloryfrom them.21 Theauthor'sargumentthatwomenhaddemonstrated"politicalvirtue"wor- thyofcommemorationtoposterityseemsparticularlyimportant.Virtue,in thelanguageofclassicalrepublicanism,wasthecivic-mindedpursuitofthe publicgood,anactivityalmostalwaystheexclusivedomainofmen.22Now womenwereenteringthepublicworldandtakingonmasculinecharacteris- ticswithoutthreateningtounderminethegoodorderofmestate,astheyhad inthecolonialandLoyalistaccounts.Onthecontrary,women'swillingness andabilitytoembracethesequalitieshadcontributedtothesuccessofthe Revolution;hencetheywereworthyofemulationbyotherwomen,notonly inAmericabutalsoin"everypartoftheglobe." ThehistoriesofAmericathatappearedfollowingindependencecontinued todevelopandpromotetheimageofwomentakinganactivepartinthe publiclifeofthenewnationthathademergedduringtheRevolution.The mostbasicdemonstrationofthischangeinattitudefromthecolonialperiod appearedinhistorians'willingnesstopoliticizefamilylife.JamesSullivan, inhisHistoryoftheDistrictofMaine(1795),arguedthattheultimatevi- abilityoftherepublicanexperimentintheUnitedStatesdependedonprop- 348/MESSER erlyfoundedfamilies."Wherewefindthepublicopinionwellestablishedin favourofthepermanencyofmarriagecompacts,andinfavouroffemale chastity,"heinformedhisreaders,"therewefindtheboundsofcivilgovern- mentcommensuratelystrong,andpropertywellsecured."23Inthiscasewe findthattheviabilityofcivillawandthesecurityofprivatepropertydepen- dentonpermanentmarriageandfemalechastity.IncontrasttoBeverley andPrince,Sullivanexplicitlyarguedthatthesurvivalofthenation'spoliti- calandeconomicinstitutionsdependedonAmericans'willingnesstocre- atefamilies.Therolesofwifeandmothertookonanpoliticaldimensionthat transformedwomenintobothmedutifulhelpmeetsoftheirhusbandsandthe guardiansoftherepublic.Inshort,Sullivanwasarticulatingtheidealsof republicanwiferyandmotherhoodinwhichthefairsexparticipatedinthe creationofthenationratherthansimplyobservingthatprocessastheyhad inearlierhistories.24 Whenhistoriansmovedontorecountingtheeventsofmorerecenttimes, womentookonanevenmoreactiveroleinthefoundinganddefenseoftheAmericannation.WilliamGordon'sTheHistoryoftheRiseandEstablish- mentoftheIndependenceoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica(1788),forex- ample,portrayedcolonialresistancetoGreatBritainasafamilialexercise inwhichallmembersofthatvenerableinstitutionplayedavitalrole: Handlingthemusketandtraining,arethefashionableamusementsofthe maleinhabitants,whilethefemalesencouragethemtoproceed...Hus- bandsandwives,parentsandchildren,brothersandsisters,lovers,the youngandtheold,seempossessedof,orrathertobepossessedbyamar- tialspirit,andarefiredwithanenthusiasticzealforliberty.25 Theresponsibilityfordefendingthecolonies'"liberty,"inthisaccount,did notfallexclusivelyonmen,butinsteadonhusbands,wives,sisters,and brothers,actinginconcert,eachfulfillingtheirassignedroles.Aswiththe earlieraccountthathadappearedinthePennsylvaniaPacket,Gordonpraisedwomenforembracingmasculinequalities,forbecoming"possessedbya martialspirit"and"firedwithanenthusiasticzealforliberty."Bothmemili- taryardorandthepoliticalsensibilitydescribedbyGordonhadlongbeenattributedtomen.YetinhisaccountoftheRevolutionitwasonlywhen womenalsoembracedthesevirtuesthatAmericasecureditsindependence.Thefoundingofthenation...