The Unaverted Eye: Dangerous Charity in Burney's Evelina and The Wanderer

TheUnavertedEye:Dangerous CharityinBurney'sEvelinaand TheWanderer SHARONLONGDAMOFF RecentscholarshiponFrancesBurneyhasbeenlargelysilentoncharity, focusinginsteadontwogeneral,andoftenoverlapping,issues:the"dark- ness"ofBurney'sfictions—theviolence,suicide,andmadness;andques- tionsoffemaleidentityandfemaleauthorship.Sucharethesubjects,for example,ofthemajorbook-lengthstudiesinrecentyears:KristinaStraub's DividedFictions,JuliaEpstein'sTheIronPen,andJoanneCutting-Gray's Womanas"Nobody."1Similarly,MargaretAnneDoody'sexplorationofthe relationshipbetweenBurney'spersonallifeandherfiction,bygivingpar- ticularemphasistothedomineeringroleofherfather,wasinstrumentalin directingBurneycriticismtowardissuesoffemaleidentityandfemaleauthorship .2ThespecialEvelinaissueofEighteenth-CenturyFictionstrikingly revealsthisdirectionofrecentscholarship;allfourmajorarticlesdealwith issuesofidentityandnamingraisedbytheframestoryofEvelina,ahomo- geneitynotedinaconcludingessaybyDoody,3whocallsforanewdirection inBurneycriticism,onethatlocatesherinabroadercontextofhistoryand literature.4 InnoneoftheseworksissufficientattentionpaidtoChristianityasan importantcontext—tome,anessentialone—forunderstandingBurney's works.Thus,whilemanymodernstudiescontainastatementthattheauthor wantstoexaminethecultural,social,legal,political,economic,medical, andothercontexts(mostofthemendingin-al,asTristramShandymight 231 232/DAMOFF note)ofherwork,oftenastheyrelatedtowomen(Epstein,forexample, mentionsthe"structureofsocial,political,economic,andculturalrelations" [IronPen,H])—thestrikingomission,tome,intheselistsofcontextual interestsis"religious,"stillthedominantethicalcontextintheeighteenth centuryandtheoneintowhichIwanttoresituateBurney.InSuperintending thePoor,BethFowkesTobinclaims,"Contextualizing...novelsbysur- roundingthemwithcontemporaryeconomic,political,andsocialtextshigh- lightsideologicalimplicationsinfictionthatotherwisemightremainob- scuretomodernreaders,"5astatementwithwhichIagree;butIwouldlike additionallytosuggestthatthereligiouscontextofeighteenth-andnine- teenth-centurynovelsisincreasinglymorelikelytobe"obscuretomodern readers"thanarethe"ideologicalimplications"thatconcernTobinandoth- ers,implicationsthatconstructinmanywaysthe"religion"ofasecularage. Hence,thoughitmightseemtosomethatIamofferingspecialprivilegesto Christianityinthisessay,establishingitoutsidetherealmofthesocialand cultural,thatisnotatallthecase.WhatIamtryingtodoistorestorethe dominantreligiousideologypreciselytowhereitbelongsandfromwhereit hasbeensignificantlyandeffectivelydisplaced:intheverycenterofany socialorculturaldiscourseconcerningtheeighteenthcentury.AUofBurney'snovelsexploretheissueofcharity,thecomplexitiesin- volvedinlovingone'sneighbor,thecentraldoctrineofChristianethics,and stillverymuchthecentralsubjectofeighteenth-centuryAngUcanmoralteach- ing.Fromherfirstnovel,Evelina(1778),toherlast,TheWanderer(1814), thirty-sixyearslater,Burneynotonlysustainsherstatementthatcharityis theessentialmeasureofethicalworth,sherepeatsitwithincreasingintensity .6InEvelina,charityiscentraltotheplot,whichchroniclesthegrowthof ayoungwomanfrommoraldependencetomoralindependence.InTheWan- derer,charityoffered—or,morecommonly,notoffered—tothedestituteandisolatedheroineistheabsolutemeasureofcharacter,Burney'smostdirectstatementthatmoralityandcharityamounttothesamething. Evelina'skindnessandgenerositytothepoorMacartneyarefarmore thanperfunctoryinstancesofcharitablenesstoprovideevidencethat sheisagood,compassionatepersonorevenagoodChristian.Evelina's charitableeffortscomeatagreatprice.Sheresolvestobehavecharita- blytotheimpoverishedandsufferingMacartneyevenifitcostsherthe goodopinionofLordOrville,themansheloves.Thatis,shewillingly risksherentirefuturehappinessonearthbybehavingcharitably.Her relationshipwithMacartneyistheoneencounterthatcausesOrville seriouslytoquestionherbehavior.Appearanceshavebeenagainsther repeatedlyinthepast,aswhenOrvilleseesherinthecompanyofthe TheUnavertedEye/233 twoprostitutes,butwithMacartney,sheseemstoOrvillewillfullytobe ignoringhisadviceanddispleasinghim. Ultimately,Orvilletooadoptsthecharitablecourseofactionbygiving herseeminglyindecorousbehavioracharitableinterpretation.Infact,he extendscharitytowardMacartney,amanheinitiallyviewedasapotential, althoughunequal,rival;heassistsEvelinainmeetingprivatelywith Macartney,firstinitiatingtheacquaintanceandthendiscreetlyleavingthem alonetogether.Evelina'scharitytowardMacartney,includingOrville's struggleoverhowtorespondtoit,isarguablythemostcrucialactionofthe novel.Ontheonehand,itrevealsEvelina'smoralworthinessandstrength— herabilitytojudgeandtoactforherself;andontheother,itrevealsOrville's willingnesstoreposefaithinherjudgment.Theabilitytojudgeandactfor herself,alwaysacrucialrequirementforaBurneyheroine,isthemoralles- sonVillarsmosturgeshertolearn.7Similarly,itisamajorpointofgrowth forthealmost,butnotquite,perfectOrvilletotrust,withoutjealousy,the motivesofthisinexperiencedyoungwoman.Evelina'sfirmnessinhercharitablecourseofactionandOrville 'svoluntaryandequallycharitablesubor- dinationofhisjudgmenttohersmarkthepointatwhichthesetwopeople becomeequals.Charity—thatis,compassionandconcernforasuffering humanbeingandconsistentanddeterminedeffortstohelpthatpersonde- spitealldangersandappearances—comprisesthecenterpieceoftheplot. Inthisregard,itmightbenoted,CaptainMirvan,theBranghtons,and MadameDuvaldofarmorethanprovidecomicinterludesinBurney'smoral fable.Theyserve,inaddition,toroundoutBurney'semphasisoncharityby revealingvariousdeviationsfromtherequiredstandard.Thecaptainisan extremeexampleofanuncharitableperson;hisworstflawishisunderlying meanness,nothisroughmanners.HeisvicioustoMadameDuval,witiian excessthatseemssadistic,particularlyduringthefakerobberyanditsafter- math.HistreatmentofthefopLovelattheendofdienovelisalsoexces- sivelycruel.8Asisoftenthecaseinhernovels,Burneytestsourowncharity (andlackofit)throughherextendedportrayalsofannoyingcharactersand tiieveryharshpunishmentstheyreceive.Ourdesiretoseepestsandfopsand otiierundesirablespunished(adesireTobiasSmollettrelishessatisfying)is itselfalwayspunishedinBurneybythereminder,underlyingtheepisodein somefashionoranother,thatourpleasureintheeventistaintedwitiiun- charitablenessandcruelty.9 WithMadameDuvalandtheBranghtons,Burneyagainaddressesthe issueofhowoneistodealwithotherswhoarethemselvesuncharitable— vulgar,selfish,andmanipulative—butthistimefromtheviewpointofthe suffererratherthantheavenger.MadameDuvalisparticularlyathomin 234/DAMOFF Evelina'ssidebecauseoftheauthorityshehasoverher.Herdomineering andembarrassingwaysareathoroughtestofEvelina'scharitableness,but Evelinaconsistentlytreatsherwithrespect,politeness,andcharity—more thananyreaderisabletomuster.TheBranghtonsaresimultaneouslyun- charitableandatestofthecharitablenessofothers.Theyseektousepeople ratherthanassistthem,afaultthathadbecome,accordingtoBumeyand others,aUtoocommonamongmembersoftheirclass—asshopkeepers,trades- men,andotherssoughttoachievethestatusandtrappingsofthoseabove themwithoutanyrecognitionoftheethicalresponsibilitiesthattraditionally, throughtheinfluenceofreligion,hadaccruedtowealth(althoughsome- times,ofcourse,thoseresponsibilitieshadbeenneglectedevenbytiiosewho wereawareofthem). TheBranghtons,asrepresentativeofthewholerisingmerchantclass, endeavortoassociatethemselvesasmuchaspossiblewiththegentry andnobilityandsimultaneouslytodistancethemselvesfromanyac- quaintancetheyperceivetobebeneaththem.Hence,notonlydothey insultandmistreatMacartney,beingwillingtommhimoutandlethim starve,theyalsoseektoprofitfromEvelina'sacquaintancewithOrville. Intheireagernesstoassociatethemselveswiththoseabovethem,how- ever,theyreverttotheirhabitsoftrade,thusrevealing—despitetheir pride—notonlytheirshopkeepingrootsbut,muchworse,theirviewof peopleascommodities.When,forexample,theywanttocommandeer Orville'scarriagetocarrythemhomefromKensington-gardens,Mr. Branghtondeclares,"thatwouldbemakingsomeuseofaLord'sac- quaintance,foritwouldsaveuscoach-hire."WhenEvelinaprotests,he demands,"where'sthegoodofyourknowingaLord,ifyou'reneverthe betterforhim?"(244).EvenaftertheybreakthewindowofOrville's carriage,Tomintrudes,byanunauthorizeduseofEvelina'sname,to solicitasilverorderfromOrville.Throughout,theyarealerttoways theycanprofitfromothers,andthey,likeMadameDuval,greatlytest Evelina'spowersofpolitenessandrestraint.Again,itisimportantto notethatEvelina'scharitytowardthemexceedsdiereader's,whoseown judgmentalreadinesstocondemnothersmustbecalledtoaccount.We shouldunderstand,forexample,thatBurney'scomedyis,finally,directednotsomuchtowardshopkeepersandtheirnecessaryattentiontomoneyandtrade,buttowardtheunabasheduseofotherpeople,towarddieattitudethat allothers—peopleaswellasobjects—arevaluableonlyforwhattheymight profitoneself,anattitudethatrevealsthegreedandpriderunningmuchdeeper throughtheBranghtonsthantheaccidentsofbirthandlivelihood.Burney's attentionisconsistentlymoreethicalthansocial,despitemuchcriticismto thecontrary. TheUnavertedEye/235 WhatIparticularlywanttoaddressinthisessay,however,isBurney's explorationofthedifficultiesencounteredbywomenintheirpracticeofchar- ity.Intheeighteenthcentury,virtueforwomenwasalwayslinkedwitiichas- tity;thevirtuouswomanwas"pure,"andthedistinctionbetweenspiritually pureandsexuallypurewaseasilyblurred.Especiallyforunmarriedwomen, virtuewasfrequentlyreducedtomodesty—notspeakingincompany,not expressingopinions,keepingthefacehidden,avertingtheeyes,andnotcon- ferring"favors"(suchassmiles).10Aboveall,amodestwomanshouldnot revealapreferenceforanyparticularmanbeforeshehadafirmcommitment tomarriage—oneofBurney'smostconsistentthemes.Revealingsuchapref- erencehadthestatusofconferringthe"lastfavor";allwouldbelost.In Burney'sthirdnovel,Camilla(1796),forexample,Mr.Tyroldwritesafa- mousletterofadviceonthismattertohisdaughter,aletterthatwasoften extractedandprintedasconductliteratureforyoungladies.''Mr.Tyroldcau- tionsCamillainstrongtermstoovercomeherfeeUngsofpartiality:"Struggle thenagainstyourselfasyouwouldstruggleagainstanenemy"(358).Above all,hecautionshertoguardhersecret:"Carefully,then,beyondallother care,shutupeveryavenuebywhichasecretwhichshoulddieuntoldcanfurtherescapeyou"(360).Keepingthefacehiddenandtheeyesaverted(or shut)becomecrucialtothemaintenanceofvirtuebecausethesearetheav- enuesthroughwhichthefactofone'spreferenceshinesforth. Forwomen,then,virtuemeantwithholdingoneself—socially,emotion- ally,and,ofcourse,sexually.ForunmarriedwomensuchasEvelina,itmeant amodeoflifeinwhichone'sslightestoutwardgesturewasrepletewith danger.Charity,tothecontrary,requiresthegivingofoneself.Itrequires givinggenerouslytoothers—ofone'stime,one'smoney,and,aboveall, one'sattention.Lovingothers,inotherwords,requiresawillingnesstosharethoughtsandofferourselves,awillingnesstoact(andnotmerelytofeel)that makesusvulnerable.Itispreciselyanunderstandingofthisvulnerability thatconstructstheeighteenth-centuryprohibitionagainstawoman'sreveal- inganypreferenceforaparticularman.Thisinherenttensionbetweengiv- ingandwithholding,betweencharityand"virtue,"iswhatBurneyexplores. EveUnamustbesomewhatforwardandaggressiveinhereffortstohelp Macartney,neitherofwhichisadesirablequaUtyforamodest,unmarried youngwoman.Shemustshowaninterestinhim,aparticularinterestthatis opentodamaginganduncharitableinterpretations. Theissueofcharityandwomenisfurthercomplicatedbecausemuchof thelanguagesurroundingsexualrelationsbetweenmenandwomenemploys themetaphorofgiftsandgiving("shegaveherselftohim,""shegaveupher honor").Traditionally,themanentreatsthewomantogivethegiftofher body,andcharitythusbecomesdiametricallyopposedtochastity,although 236/DAMOFF bothareupheldasvirtues.InEnglish,wealsouseoneword—"love"—to expressbothcharitableloveandloveofasexualmate,andthetwomeanings ofthewordareblurredinthat(in)famousline:"Ifyoulovedme,youwould." Charityiselevatedin1Cor.13:13andbynumerouseighteenth-century sermonwritersasthehighestvirtue,butbecauseoftheconflictingrequire- mentsforgivingandwitiiholding,women—evenwomenofmeans—arehin- deredfrompracticingit.Evelina'sactionssurroundingMacartneyillustrate thistension.Sheshouldbesociallywithdrawnfromhimaccordingtothe rulesofdecorum,butcharityurgeshertogivetohim,tohearhisstoryandbe hisfriendandbenefactor.Evelina'sbehaviortowardMacartney,although ultimatelyvindicated,isnotwitiioutperil.Sheviolatesthestrictrulesof proprietywhensheestablishesarelationshipwithhimandespeciallywhen sheagreestomeethimonhermorningwalk(asOrvillemakesobvious).In theend,BurneyiscarefultodistanceEvelinafromanywrongdoing.ThatMacartneyprovestobeEvelina'sbrotherisarichtwistonthescripturalrewardingofkindnessesto"theleastofmybrethren,"butitisalsoawayoffurtherdesexualizingtherelationshipbetweenEvelinaandMacartney.Throughoutthepistolscene,inwhichEvelinarushesintoMacartney's roomtopreventhim,asshethinks,fromshootinghimselfonthespot, Evelinaalternatesbetweenboldaction—grabbinghisarms,seizingthe pistols—andfrozeninaction—collapsingonthefloor"breathlessand senseless"(182),leaningonthetable,andfinally"totterfing]downstairs" (183).Thisscene(over)dramatizestheconflictingbehaviorsrequiredofwomen.Theyaretobemoralactors,buttheyarealsotobepassiveand subdued.Vdlarsrecognizesthistensionbetweentheboldactionrequiredduringthepistolsceneandthedemureactionusuallyrequiredofwomen: "thecouragewithwhichyoupursuedthisdesperateman,atoncede- lightedandterrifiedme"(216)—thatis,Evelina'scharitableinterestin asufferinghumanbeingpleaseshim,butheisawareofthedangertoherasapersonandasawomanin"pursu[ingj"a"desperateman."Nev- ertheless,heurgesher,"Beeverthus...dauntlessinthecauseofdis- tress!"(217).Heconcludes:"Thoughgentlenessandmodestyarethe peculiarattributesofyoursex,yetfortitudeandfirmness,whenoccasiondemandsthem,arevirtuesasnobleandasbecominginwomenasinmen:the rightUneofconductisthesameforbothsexes,thoughthemannerinwhich itispursued,maysomewhatvary..."(217).Thislastdemurisfrustratingly vague.Hedoesnotsaythatrightconductisthesameforbothsexes;hesays thelineofconductisthesame.Nordoeshespecifywhatwouldbedievary- ingrightmanneroffollowingthatlineformenandforwomen.Hisvague- nessunderscoresthedangerforwomeninaworldinwhichrightconduct differsformenandwomen,butinwhichwomenareneverthelessexhortedto TheUnavertedEyeI237 be"dauntlessinthecauseofdistress."Womenmustdecideforthemselves when"occasiondemands"the"unwomanly"virtuesofboldnessand"firm- ness,"butthestakesarehigh,andanerrorinboldnesswouldbefarmore costlyforthemthanforaman.EventhoughVillarspraisesEvelinaforher boldness,hisvaguenessservesasawarningthatsuchboldactionisalways dangerousforwomen—andparticularlysoforwomeninaworldgoverned notbycharitybutbyuncharitablejudgments. Burney'semphasisoncharityisrootedinthefundamentalscripturalin- junctiontoloveone'sneighborasoneself(Lev.19:18,Matt.22:39),andher narrativereflectsscripturalnarratives:EvelinaisaGoodSamaritan—albeit...