Phillis Wheatley, the Aesthetic, and the Form of Life

PhillisWheatley,theAesthetic, andtheFormofLife FRANKSHUFFELTON Inafrequentlyadmirableattempttorescuethe"LettersoftheEarly Republic"frompersistentneglect,MichaelT.GilmoreinthenewCam- bridgeHistoryofAmericanLiteraturerejectscriticismofAmericanwriting between1790and1830foritsfailuretoliveuptopost-Romanticaesthetic criteria.Hisdefense,nevertheless,concedesdiepointtothoseaesdietically groundedcriticswhowouldsupposedlyholdallliteratureuptoasingle, universalstandardofevaluationandhencefindearlyAmericanliterature wanting.Hisargumentinsteadaimstoprivilegetheliteratureoftheearly republicforitsideologicalworkoveritsaestheticenterprise.Thisliterature isinteresting,heurges,as"theproductofahistoricalformationdominated byrepublicanism,communalism,andapre-industrialagrarianeconomy," whereas"theprivilegingoftheaestheticassomethingdesirablepurelyfor itsownsakewasitselftheproduct—atleastinAmerica—ofahistorical configurationtiiatpostdatedtheearlynationalperiod."1Hisintroductionof abaseandsuperstructuremodelimmediatelylimitsconsiderationofthe waysinwhichaestheticexperiencemightsubvertortransformanygiven "historicalformation."Furthermore,theidentificationoftheaestheticwith "dieprivilegingoftheaestiieticassomethingdesirablepurelyforitsown sake,"latercalled"dieRomantic-modernistideal,"ismoremisleadingthan 73 74/SHUFFELTON helpfulbecausethemodernaestheticaroseindie"historicalformation" thatprecededdieearlyrepublicratherthanintheerasucceedingit. PaulO.Kristellerdemonstratedfourdecadesagothataestiietics,consid- eredastheincorporationof"thecomparativeandtheoreticaltreatmentof thefineartsasaseparatedisciplineintothesystemofphilosophy,"didnot emergeuntiltheendofdieeighteendicenturyinGermany,andhecon- cludedthat"themodernsystemofthefineartsismuspre-Romanticinits origin,althoughallRomanticaswellaslateraestheticstakesthissystemas itsnecessarybasis."2ThekeytextsanddateshereareundoubtedlyAlexander Baumgarten's/4eÃ-Ã-/ieÃ-/caof1750,whichcoineddieterm,GottholdEphraim Lessing'sLaokoonof1768,andImmanuelKant'sCritiqueofJudgementin 1790.Becausetheeighteenth-centuryGerman"historicalconfiguration" thatproducedaestheticswas,arguably,assubstantiallypreindustrialand communalasthatoftheearlyAmericanrepublic,Gilmore'shistorical materialistargumentdoesnotseemtobeparticularlycogent.Germanyand Americawerecertainlydifferentlysituated,butonesignoftiiatdifference wastheemergenceofaphilosophicalarticulationoftheaestheticideaas opposedtodiepoeticarticulationthatwasperhapsmorefavoredbywriters intheEnglishvernacular. Moreimportant,aestheticsinthismodernsensegrewoutofcriticalen- gagementwithadiscourseabouttheexperiencedpleasuresofartdiatisat leastasoldasPlatoandAristotle,atraditionawarefromtheverybeginning thataesdieticexperiencecouldeidiersubvertorsupportorderingideologies orhistoricalformations.Thediscourseofthebeautifulanddiepleasuresof theimaginationavailabletoBaumgartenandhissuccessorsincludedtextsin EnglishandFrenchbyAddison,Shaftesbury,Hume,Dubos,Batteuxand otiiers,sothatifthescienceofaestheticsfirstappearedinGermany,thematerialsoutofwhichitwasconstructedwerefarmorewidelyavailable, manyeveninAmerica.Equally,aestheticsgrewoutofengagementwithdie problematicartofitsownera(styledbyhistoriansasearlymodernindis- tinctiontoGilmore's"pre-modern"),anerainwhichthevernacularlitera- turesdisplacedthoseofdieclassicsascompositionalnorms.Benjamin FrankUnlearnedtowritebyimitatingtheSpectator,notCicero,andheac- quiredanarchetypicallymodernself-consciousnessaboutlanguageandselfrepresentationinsodoing .Simultaneously,dieconceptoforiginaUtyemerged inthissameera.EdwardYoung'sConjecturesonOriginalComposition (1759)appearedindiesamedecadeasBaumgarten'sAesthetica.Inother words,bydietimeofKant'sthirdcritiquetheartswerealreadymodern, evenifnotyetRomantic,andifdiemodernsystemofdieartswasfirst constructedinGermany,itwasintendedtoreflectonahteraturewidelycur- PhillisWheatley,theAesthetic,andtheFormofLife/75 rentintheAtlanticcivilization,notexceptingwhateverliteraturewaspro- ducedonitswesternfringes.3 Aboveall,asLucFerryhasrecentlyargued,theconceptofaesthetics appearedsimultaneouslywithasubjectivizationoftheworldmarkedbydie appearanceofthemodernconceptsofindividualismanddemocracy.Against aradicalvisionofsubjectsreducedtoLeibnizianmonads,itisdiebeauti- ful,saysFerry,"whichatdiesametimebringsustogetherthemosteasilyyetthemostmysteriously."Aestheticsinhisreadingbecomesdieground foranintersubjectivityalreadyimpliedinKant'santinomyoftasteandnow increasinglyimportantforuswho"nolongerliveinanaprioricommon world."4ToignorethequestionoftheaestheticinearlyAmericanwriting risksmissingwhatmighthavebeenmostimportantforitscreators,the commitmenttopleasuresofdieimaginationdiatmadesociallifepossible, anditrisksmissingwhatthatliteraturemighthavetosaytous.Toread earlyAmericanUteratureonlyasanideologicalperformanceunderestimates itsfullpowerasanimaginative,imaginedformoflifethatarisesoutofand standsagainstdiedailyexperienceofitscreatorsandaudiences.Iamin- vokinghereWittgenstein'swell-knownobservation,'Toimaginealanguage meanstoimagineaformoflife,"becauseitallowsspaceforbothimagina- tivesubjectsandobjectivesocialfomns.Furthermore,Iwouldliketore- flectthisuponPhillisWheatley,whobrilliantlyimaginedanewlanguage forherselfinanewworld,andwhosewritingsdeliveredpleasureandcon- solationtoherselfandtothecitizensofBostonwhowerebothitsoccasions andfirstreadersinthe1770sand1780s.Whileherwritingisclearlyimpli- catedindiscoursesofempire,offreedom,andofredemption,itsmasteryof feelingandestrangementfinallymattermorethanthepoliticalmessages ideologicalcriticshavedecoded.Hercomplexstructuringoffeeling,the experienceofdiesubjecttiiatgroundstheaestheticdimensionofpoetry, mayinfacthaveamoreprofoundpoliticalimportthanhermoreovertly ideologicalstatements. II WhenPhillisWheatley'sPoemsonVariousSubjects,ReligiousandMoral appearedtoBritishandAmericanaudiencesin1773,tìieywereintroduced byseveralpagesoflegitimatingstatements;some,likethededicationtodie CountessofHuntingdon,weredioroughlyconventional,butotiiersannounced aradicallynewliteraryandculturalpresence,especiallytheattestation'To thePUBLICK"signedbyeighteenofcolonialBoston'sleadinginhabitants. Thisdocumentandtheletterfromtheautiior'smaster,JohnWheatley,establishedtiiatPhillis ,identifiedonthetitlepageasa"NegroServant,"wasnot 76/SHUFFELTON merelyanotherpastoralvoicefromthelowerordersbut"aSlaveinaFam- ilyinthisTown,"apersoninasituationverydifferentfromthatoffaddishly popularThresherPoetsandMilkmaidPoets.Equallyimportant,'Tothe PUBLICK"alsoimpliedacomplexperformativeunderstandinginwhich Wheatley'spoemswouldoperate,anunderstandingthatwasmoreradical thanperhapsanyofdiesignersrecognized.5 Formostofthesemen—andtheywereallmen—,itwouldbeoneofthe fewtimesinthe1770sthattheywouldagreeonanythinginpublic.Thomas HutchinsonandAndrewOliver,thegovernorandlieutenant-governor,were alreadybecomingthemosthatedmeninMassachusetts,andtiiosewhodid notdespisethemfearedJohnHancock.Therevolutionaryviolenceofthe comingyearswouldsendTorieslikeHutchinson,Oliver,andJosephGreen intoexile,placeMatherBylesunderhousearrest,andembitterconserva- tiveslikeHarrisonGray.Forthemoment,however,theycouldcometo- gethertoadvancethepublicationof"theWritingsofPHILLIS,...ayoung NegroGirl,whowasbutafewYearssincebroughtanuncultivatedBarbarianfromAfrica ."Theywereforthemomentabletoovercometheirsuspi- cionsandjealousiespreciselybecausePhilliswasnota"Barbarian"butan accomplishedpractitionerofwhatDavidShieldshasrecentlydescribedas "British-AmericanBellesLettres,...amodeofwritingthatsubordinated thetraditionaltasksofedification,revelation,andmemorializationtothe workofstimulatingsocialpleasure."6Anydoubtsonthismatterwouldbe sweptawaybyaconsiderationofWheatley'sfirstpoem,'ToMaecenas," thatimmediatelyinvokedaparalleltoHorace,theultimateclassicexem- plarforallpractitionersofbelles-lettres.HoracebeganhisownOdeswith anaddresstoMaecenas,butasCynthiaJ.Smithhasastutelyobserved,where Horacesoughtmaterialsupportfromarealpatron,Wheatleyapostrophized aninterpellatedfigureas"asympatheticreader,perhapsevenasacritic." Invokinga"sharedsensibility,"WheatleypraisednotsomuchMaecenasas thepleasuresofreading"o'erwhatpoetssung,andshepherdsplayed."7ThomasHutchinsonandJohnHancock,MatherBylesandCharlesChauncy couldsinktheirpoliticaldifferencesinthecommonpleasureofreading Homer,Virgil,and,now,PhillisWheatley. Belles-lettres,orpolitelettersasitwasusuallytranslated,wasatrope thatofferedWheatley'sattestorsasafegroundbecauseitstraditional associationwithdievirtuesofsociabilitynormativelyprecludedexpres- sionsofpoliticalrancor.AsShieldsexplains,"Politeletterswereideally expressionsofthesensuscommunisthatcommunalspiritofcandidfriend- linessthatShaftesburyidentified...asthesoulofgenteelsociety."8Politics mightwellenterintotheconversationthatwasoftheessenceofsociability, PhillisWheatley,theAesthetic,andtheFormofLifeITl buttheTuesdayClubofAnnapolisdemonstratedinitseighthlawofclub behaviorhow"candidfriendliness"shoulddealwithpoliticaltopics:"That ifanySubjectofwhatnaturesoeverbediscussed,whichlevelsatparty matters,ortheadministrationofdieGovernmentofthisprovince,orbe disagreeabletotheClub,noanswerShallbegiventhereto,butafterSuch discourseisended,theSocietyShallLaughatthememberoffending,in ordertodivertthediscourse."9Politelettersultimatelyaimedatadvancingcivility,andpolitenesstypicallydealtwithpoliticseitiierbysurroundingit withsilenceorbymaskingitwithlaughterorsentiment. Thecommunityofbelles-lettresthusprovidedwhatJürgenHabermas hascalledan"idealspeechsituation...neitheranempiricalphenomenon normereconstruct,butratheranunavoidablesuppositionreciprocallymade indiscourse."10Neidiersoegalitariannorsoapoliticalasitclaimed,the conversationalsensuscommuniswasnotsimplyacounterfactualmyth.It waswidelyandfrequentlypracticedinclubs,salons,drawingrooms,and taverns,andthispracticemarkedtheappearanceofaformoflifethatcen- trallysupportedtheEnlightenment'sprojectofemancipationaswellasthe workoftheempire.Thebelletristicmomentoftheattestationpretended tiiatThomasHutchinsonandJohnHancockwerenotconnivingateach other'spoliticalruin,anditfurtheruphelddiefictiontiiatPhillisWheatley's statusasaslavewasnohindrancetohersharingwithMaecenas"softer language,anddivinerairs." Inspite,however,ofthepretenseofagreeabiUtyimpUedindiegentlemen's attestation,tiieirstatementunderlineddiefacttiiatbotiitheydiemselves andWheatley'sPoemswereinescapablyconnectedtoapoliticsofempire. ArchibaldBell,herLondonpublisherwhohadrequestedthistestimonial, occupiedanimperialcenterthatwasatoncethearbiterofmannersinthe English-speakingworldanddiecenterofimperialpoliticalandeconomic control.TheBostonattestorsplayedafamiliarrolebyauthenticatingprovin- cialfactsforthiscenter,andtheirreportfromthemarginsoftheAtlantic worldreinscribeddieimperialorder.11RoyalappointeesHutchinsonand Oliverappendedtheirtitlestotheirnames,anddieattestorswhoenjoyed appointmenttodiegovernor'sCouncilweredistinguishedwithdieprefix "Honorable."Iftheattestorscametogethersupposedlyintheinterestof politeliterature,therelationshipoftheirnamesonthepagetracesoutpower andhierarchy."PHILLIS"herselfismoredeeplyenmeshedintiiispower, sinceshewas"butafewYearssince,brought...fromAfrica,...andnow is,undertheDisadvantageofservingasaSlaveinaFamilyinthisTown." Shehasbeenanobjectofthecommercethatisbotiidiecauseandthepur- poseoftiiisempire,andinaveryrealsensesheisstillanobjectofexchange, 78/SHUFFELTON offeredupasacommodityfortheconversationofimperialpoliteletters.In thisregardherraceandpoliticalstatusarenotdiscreetlymaskedby belletristicfictions,aswasHancock'spolitics,butbecomemarkedqualifi- cationsforherparticipationinthetrans-Atlanticcommunityofletters.The portrait,requestedbytheCountessofHuntingdon,iscircledwiththein- scription"PhillisWheatley,NegroServanttoMr.JohnWheatley,ofBos- ton."Eachoftheprefatorydocuments—titlepage,dedication,publisher's preface,letterfromJohnWheatley,attestation—referstoherstatusasNe- gro,servant,orslave,leavingnodoubtthatPoemsonVariousSubjectswas ineffectonemoretrophyofempire,anothermarvelfromtheNewWorld. Nevertheless,iftheattestationreinforcedthehegemonicrelationshipbe-tweenimperialcenterandmargins,italsoindicateddiepotentialforrecap- tureofpersonalandsocialpowerwithinanimperialsystem,particularly when,likethefirstBritishempire,itwrappeditselfindiemytiisofbelles- lettres.12Inanempirelegitimatingitselfthroughmercantilistvisionsofexchangethatwouldmakewealthybothcenterandprovinces ,belle-lettrists' faithinconversationas"thefundamentalPrincipleofSociety"wasdieulti- mateeconomics.Moreimportant,theworldofAnglo-Americanpolitelit- eratureintheyearsbetweentheGloriousRevolutionanddieAmericanRevo- lutioncoincideswiththeHabermasian"publicsphereintheworldoflet- ters,"where"thesubjectivityoriginatingintheinferiorityoftheconjugal family,bycommunicatingwithitself,attainedclarityaboutitself"Thegreat achievementoftheEnlightenmentasHabermasdescribesitwasthefunc- tionalconversionofthepublicsphereintheworldoflettersintoapublic sphereinthepoliticalrealmwhere"privatepeoplemakinguseoftheirrea- son"mightcriticizepublicaudiority.13Bythetimethewomanweknowas PhillisWheatleyarrivedinBostondiepublicsphereinliterature,inspiteof itsbelletristicpretensionstothecontrary,hadbecomeidentifiedwithdie publicsphereinthepoliticalrealm.Participationintheonenecessitated participationintheother,somuchsothatscholarsusingHabermas'sex- tremelyusefulnotiontendtorefersimplytothepublicsphere,undervalu- ingdiedistinctionsimplicitinitshistoricalemergence. Itseemsentirelyappropriate,then,thattheattestorswhoplacedtiieir namesattheheadofWheatley's1773Poemsseemtobealsorepresentedin itsfinalpageswithasortofconversationalripostetotheinterveningpo- ems.Thenexttolastpoem,titled"ARebus,byI.B.,"isnotbyPhillisbutis probablybyJamesBowdoin,anattestorwhowasanimportantmerchantof theperiod;bothapatriotleaderandascientificvirtuoso,hewouldeventu- allybecomegovernorofMassachusettsin1785aswellasthefirstpresident ofdieAmericanAcademyofArtsandLetters.14Wheatleysavesthelast wordforherselfwith'TheAnswertotheRebus,bydieAuthorofThese PhillisWheatley,theAesthetic,andtheFormofLife/79 Poems"inwhichsheidentifiesQuebecasthehiddenfigureindierebus. GeneralJamesWolfe'scaptureofQuebecwasregardedasatriumphof Britishimperialpowerandvirtue,anheroicenterpriseinwhichtroopsof boththehomecountryandthecoloniestookpartandwhichsealedthe futureofNorthAmericaasanEnglish-speaking(andProtestant)empire. Thesubsidiaryfiguresthatcontributetosolvingtherebusarevariouslyty- pologicalandscriptural,imperial,local,andclassical:"theQuailofmostinvitingtaste/FedIsrael'sarmyinthedrearyWaste,"theUnicornfrom "Britain'sroyalstandard,"dieEmerald"Amongthegemswhichregalcrowns compose,"Boston("atown,politeanddebonair,/Towhichthebeauxand beauteousnymphsrepair"),"EuphorbusoftheDardanUne,"and"C\hatha]m zealoustosupportourlaws"(111).Thisrichlyimbricatedsetoffigures compassestheidealizedself-imageoftheBritishEmpirein1773,butits referencestotheoldPuritantropeofliberationandmissionandtoWilliam Pittalsorecognizediestressesthatthreatenedtoshattertheideal.Wheatley's concludingquatraincouldbereadoneitìiersideofdieAtlanticin1773widi differentdegreesofself-congratulationorapprehension: Quebecnowvanquish'dmustobey, Shetoomustannualtributepay ToBritainofimmortalfame, Andaddnewglorytohername. Conventionsofpoliteletterssubduepoliticalanxietieshere,eveniftheydo notentirelydispelthem.Wheatleyherself,notyetemancipated,mightbe presumedtohavehadherownironictakeontheimageofavanquished QuebecforcedtopaytributetoBritishglory,evenashertestimonialtoem- pirebroughtherintoitsconversationalcircles. PhillipM.RichardshasdescribedWheatley'sparticipationinthepublic sphereasplayingasignificantroleinwhathecalls"theromanceofAmerica," butheremergenceintothepublicspherewasauthorizedbyanearlierro- manceofBritishempire.15Thisisalsoadistinctionworthmaintaining.In- clusionandexpansionaresustainingprinciplesofempire,thestructuralin- clusionofdiversesubjectsanddieexpansionoflegitimatingmythologiesto enfolddiem.TheBritishimperialliterarypublicsphereasfiguredinbelles- lettresshapedmythsofconversationbetweenthecenterandtheprovincial margins,betweencolonizersandcolonized,tiiatdependeduponculturaldifference .Thisempirelegitimateditselfbytransformingdissimilarcultures, anddiusalwaysneededconvertibleandconversablesubjectswhocouldcon- firmitssuccesses.Publicspheresinlaternationstates,however,became susceptibletoalogicofexclusion,totheformationofnationalidentitiesby rejectingalienothers.Theimperialliterarypublicsphereencouragedatrans- 80/SHUFFELTON Atlanticconversationofsociabilityandcivilityamongitssubjects,butto dosoitnecessarilyextendedtothemthedialogicequalitythatwasdieidealizedandpracticalbasisofbelletristicfriendship . /// Convertedfromherextra-imperialbeginningsas"anuncultivatedBar- barian,"WheatleywaspeculiarlyabletoaffecttheromanceofAmerica becauseshehadfirstgainedhervoicewithinthisidealspeechsituationof British-Americanletters.HerPoemsonVariousSubjectsobviouslycarried ontheconversationofempireinpoemsaddressed"TotheKing'sMost ExcellentMajesty,1768,""ToCaptainH------D,ofthe65thRegiment," and"TotheRightHonourableWilliam,EarlofDartmouth."Nevertheless, thesupportnecessaryfortheirpublicationcamefromthemanypoemsthat were,aspromisedinthetitle,religiousandmoral.Sheseemstohavespecializedingrief ;therearefourteenelegiesplusatranslationfromOvid's Metamorphosesof"NiobeinDistressforHerChildrenSlainbyApollo,"to saynothingofthreepoemstopeoplewhohavenarrowlyescapeddisaster orareseekingtorecovertheirhealth.Thesearenotsomuchthesignsofa melancholyormorbidtemperamentinWheatleyasoftheformoflifeher poetryassumedinpre-revolutionaryBoston.Discussingtheconnection betweenprintedtextsandmanuscriptsinthepublicsphere,DavidShields makesanimportantpoint:"beforeprinttherewaswriting;afterprinting therewaswriting."16Wheatley'spoemscirculatedinmanuscriptandinbroad- sidesandpamphletsbeforetheyappearedinaboundvolume,andwemust recognizetiiisasanessentialfunctionofherparticipationinthepubUcsphere. AnumberofWheatleycommentatorshavefastenedupondiemoreobvi- ouslypoliticalpoems,particularlythepoemtoDartmouthwithitspowerful linesexpressingablackpresenceunderthesignofslavery...