Imperial Designs: Botanical Illustration and the British Botanic Empire

ImperialDesigns:Botanical IllustrationandtheBritish BotanicEmpire BETHFOWKESTOBIN Thisessayfocusesprimarilyonbotanicalillustrationscommissionedby orpublishedunderthedirectionofSirJosephBanks,whoasPresident oftheRoyalSocietyandunofficialdirectoroftheRoyalBotanicGardensat Kew,wasoneofthemostpowerfulmeninthelateeighteenth-centuryBrit- ishscientificcommunity.Myaimistoexplorethewaysinwhichbotanical illustrationwasemployedbytheBritishbotanicalestablishmentintheirdis- coveryofplantsnewtoEurope,intheirmanagementofinformationabout theseglobalresources,andintheirmanipulationoftheworld'splantlife. BeforeexaminingspecificillustrationsproducedbyEnglishandIndianart- ists,Iwillsurveytheactivitiesandmentalitiesofthelateeighteenth-century Britishbotanicalestablishmentsothatwemayunderstandthecontextin whichtheseillustrationswereproduced.Iwillthenexaminethewayinwhich botanicalart'scomplexformalcodessimultaneouslylentthemselvestothe imperialaimsofBritishbotanywhileunderminingsomeofthebasictenets ofthisLinnaean-inflectedbotany.1 Sir Joseph Banks In1768SirJosephBanks,gentlemanandamateurbotanist,sailedwith CaptainCookonhisfirstvoyagearoundtheworld.Banksbroughtwithhim Dr.DanielSolander,abotanistandpupilofCarlvonLinné,thenaturalist 265 266 / TOBIN HermanSpöring,twoartists,SydneyParkinsonandAlexanderBuchan,and fourservantstoassistinanambitiousundertaking—thecataloguingofall thenewplantstheyencounteredontheirvoyage.TheEndeavourstoppedat Madeira,RiodeJaneiro,andTierradelFuegoonthewaytoTahiti,where theyweretostayforseveralmonthsbeforeembarkingonanexplorationof themysterioussouthcontinent.WhiletheEndeavourlayanchoredoffRio deJaneiro,BankshadbeenorderedbytheViceroyofBraziltoremainon boardbecausethecolonialgovernorbelievedthatBanksandhisteamof botanistsandartistswerespies.Banks'sdesiretocollectnewplantlifewas sostrongthatheignoredtheBraziliangovernor'sdirective,andunderthe coverofdarknessheandSolanderslippedofftheshipandrowedashoreso thattheymightgatherafewbotanicalspecimens.Solanderdescribedand namedthethreehundredorsoitems,usingthelatestscientificclassification systemdevelopedbyCarlvonLinné,andSydneyParkinsonpaintedpictures oftheplantspecimens.2Inadditiontothesespecimens,Banksalsocollected Brazilianfruits:melons,pineapples,oranges,limes,lemons,mangoes,and bananas.Bankstastedeachfruit,recordedhisjudgmentsastotheirquality inhisjournal,andsavedtheseedswhichheseveralmonthslaterplantedin Tahiti.Proudofhiscultivationskills,hewrote:"IhaveverylittleDoubtof theformer[seeds]especialycomingtoperfectionasIhavegivenawaylargequantitiesamongthenativesandplantedalsointhewoods;theynowcontinualyaskmeforseedsandhavealreadyshewdmemelonplantsoftheir raisingwhichlookperfectlywell[«c]."3 Intransferringseedsfromoneecosystemintoanother,Banks'splanting ofBrazilianseedsinTahitiforeshadowshiscareerasdirectoroftheRoyal GardensatKew,apositionthatentailednotonlythesupervisionofthecol- lectionandcataloguingofplantlifenewtoEuropeans,butalsoincludedthe managementofwhatDanielHeadrickcallsthe"BritishBotanicalEmpire."4 AccordingtoFransStafleu,KewGardensplayed"aroleinthedevelopment oftheempirethroughtheintroductionofusefulaswellasornamentalplants fromallpartsoftheglobe,forthebenefitofthehomecountryaswellasof thecolonialsettlements."5DuringBanks'ssupervisionofKew(1772-1820), approximatelyseventhousandnewplantsarrivedinEnglandfromaround theworld.6WithBanks'sleadership,Kewbecame,inthewordsofhisbiog- rapher,the"greatexchangehouseoftheEmpire,"anditserved"asanadvi- sorycentreforallpracticalactivitiesinbotanywhileatthesametimeit controlledthedevelopmentofbotanicalexplorationandexperiment."7Inher historyoftheRoyalBotanicGardens,LucileBrockwaydescribesKewas sharinginthe"spiritofcrusadingimperialism"withits"scientificdevelop- mentoftheplantstransferred."Sheconcludesthat"Kewconvertedknowl- ImperialDesigns:BotanicalIllustration/267 edgetoprofitandpower,fortheEmpireandfortheindustrialworldsystem ofwhichBritainwasthentheleader."8 UnderthedirectionofBanks,KewGardensbecamethecenterofthe Britishempire'smanagementoftropicalandsubtropicalagriculture.Banks monitoredtheactivitiesofbotanicalgardenswhichwereestablishedbythe BritishintheirWestIndianandEastIndiancolonies.FromtheBotanicGar- deninSt.Vincent,hereceivedregularinventoriesofplantscollectedand cultivatedforornamentalandcommercialuse.Hewasinconstantcorre- spondencewiththevariousdirectorsoftheCalcuttaBotanicGarden,offer- ingthemadviceonwhichplantstocultivate,arguingthatIndiawithits"ad- vantagesofsoil,climate&populationsoeminentlyaboveitsmothercoun- try,seemsbynature,intendedforthepurposeofsupplyingherfabricswith rawmaterials."9BanksencouragedtheEastIndiaCompanytoinvestinthe cultivationofplants,suchascotton,indigo,pepper,cinnamon,andhemp, insistingthatnotonlywouldthesebeprofitableventuresbutpatrioticaswell byreducingBritain'sdependenceonforeignpowers'accesstothesecom- modities.AsRayDesmondobserves,"Banksneveroncewaveredinhis convictionthattheprosperityofBritainanditscoloniescouldbeenhanced bytheboldandimaginativeutilizationoftheworld'snaturalresources."10 BanksdidnotthinkonlyintermsofthebenefitsthatBritainwouldaccrue fromtheconsumptionofitscolonies'plantmaterial;healsothoughtthatthe colonialterritorieswouldbenefitfromthisworld-widetrafficinplants.He encouragedthevariouscolonialbotanicalgardenstoexchangeseedsandto cultivateplantsfromothertropicalandsubtropicalzones.Forinstance,the CalcuttaBotanicGardencultivatedWestIndianmahogany,oneofthesixty WestIndianplantswhichwereadaptedtotheBengalclimate.Banksmasterminded ,unbeknownsttotheEastIndiaCompany,asecretmissionwhichhad asitsgoalthesmugglingofcottonseedsoutofIndiaforexperimentalculti- vationintheCaribbean.Bankswrotetohisagent,aKewgardenerhere- cruited:"therealobjectofyourmissionistoprocurefortheWestIndies seedsofthefinersortsofcottonwithwhichtheAhmoodCountrywhereyou areorderedtoresideabounds."11Mostfamous,orinfamous,ofBanks'searly attemptstomanageplanttransfersforthebenefitoftheempireisthetrans- portationofTahitianbreadfruittotheWestIndiesasacheapsourceoffood fortheslaveswhoworkedonBritishsugarplantations.Thistransferofplant materialendedwiththemutinyonCaptainBligh'sBounty,andwiththe deathofoneoftheKewgardenerssentbyBanksonthevoyagetokeepthe plantsaliveonroutetoJamaica.ThisearlyfiascodidnotdissuadeBanks fromespousingthecauseoftheinternationalcirculationofplantsandthe benefitssuchtradewouldbestowonBritainanditscolonies. 268 / TOBIN BotanicalIllustration Botanists,likeBanks,eagertocollectandcatalogue"new"plants, employedbotanicaldraughtsmentoaidintheireffortstoidentifyandclassify plants.Botanicalartinlateeighteenth-centuryBritainwasheavilyinfluenced byitsroleintheclassificationofplantlife,andineffect,becameanextension ofbotany.Whatwasrepresentedandwhatwasnotrepresentedinbotanical illustrationsofthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturyreflectthe concernsofabotanyshapedsimultaneouslybyLinné'ssystemofclassification andbythecolonialimperativeoftheera. Europe'smostfamousbotanicaldraughtsman,GeorgDionysiusEhret (1708-70),workedtogetherwithLinnétoproducetheillustrationsforHortus Cliffortianus(1737)whichdepictedtherareplantsintheprivatebotanical gardenofGeorgeClifford,anAnglo-Dutchfinancier.AtClifford'sresidence inHaarlem,EhretandLinnésharedideasandinformation,acollaboration thatculminatedinEhretbringingouta"Tabella"basedonLinné'smethod ofexaminingthestamens.WiththisTabellaEhretmade"somemoney,"but itwasincludedwithoutacknowledgementinthesecondeditionofLinné's GeneraPlantarum(1742).12Ehrettransformedbotanicalartsubtlybyfo- cusingonthosedetailsoftheplantthatLinnédeclaredthemostsignificantto histaxonomicproject.Ehretfocusedontheflower,depictingclearlythenum- berofpistilsandstamenssothatbotanistswhowereemployingLinné's binomialsystemcouldusetheillustrationstostudyandidentifyplants. Conventionsofbotanicalillustrationthatareacceptedtodayas"normal" developedoverthecourseoftheeighteenthcenturyandwereinfluencedby theLinnaeansystemofclassification.Typicallythelateeighteenth-century botanicalillustrationisdiagrammatic,depictingthestem,leaves,andflowersofaplantagainstawhitebackground .Sometimesfruitareshownhang- ingfromtheplant;sometimesfruitaredrawnasseparateitemsandsetoff fromtheplanteitherbeneathorbesideit.Sometimestheflower,placednear thebottomborder,isdrawninitsvariousstagesofblooming,evendissected toshowitspartsoffructification.Notrepresentedisthewholeplant—its sizeandshape—noristhereanyattempttorecordhowtheplant'svitalprop- ertiesfunction.Rootsystemsarerepresentedinfrequentlyinsuchillustra- tions.Dissected,cross-sectionedstems,limbs,andleavesrarelyappearin lateeighteenth-centurydrawingsofplants.AlsoeliminatedfromtheLin- naean-influencedbotanicalillustrationistheplant'senvironment,whichincludesthekindofsoilitgrowsinandthekindofclimaticconditionsthatit needstosurvive.Notrepresented,also,istheplant'srelationshipwithother plantsandwithanimals. ImperialDesigns:BotanicalIllustrationI269 Thecultural,aswellastheenvironmental,contextofeachplantismiss- ingintheseillustrations.Thelocalnameoftheplantisnotrecorded;instead theEuropean"discoverer's"nameisoftenassignedtotheplantalongwitha latinizednamethatplacesitinaclassificationsystemthathasbeendeemed "universal."Norarelocalusesofthatplantrecorded,noristhereanyattempttounderstandandrecordthesignificanceoftheplanttoaparticular humanculture,suchasthemythsandculturalusesoftheironwoodtothe TahitiansorthebananaplanttotheHawaiians.13Thelateeighteenth-century botanicalillustrationwasheavilyinfluencedbyLinnaeanbotanywhichsought toerasetheenvironmentalandculturalcontextsofplants.WhatMaryLouise PratthassaidofEnlightenmentnaturalhistorycanbeappliedtoLinnaean botany:"Naturalhistoryextractedspecimensnotonlyfromtheirorganicor ecologicalrelationswitheachother,butalsofromtheirplacesinotherpeoples' economies,histories,socialandsymbolicsystems."14Thewhiteborderand snippedtwigoflateeighteenth-centurybotanicalillustrationreinforcedthe ideathataplantcouldbepluckedfromoneculturalandecologicalcontext andinsertedintoanotherwitheaseandwithlittleregardfornegativeconse- quences.Tounderstandthewayinwhichsomeoftheconventionsoflate eighteenth-centurybotanicalillustrationworkedtodecontextualizeplantlife, itmaybehelpfultoexaminebrieflypre-Linnaeanbotanicalillustrationwhich oftenrepresentedplantsineithertheirnaturalorculturalcontexts. Pre-LinnaeanBotanicalIllustration BeforeLinnaeanbotanydominatedEuropeanand,inparticular,English botanicalart,illustrationsofplantswereincludedinherbáis(booksthatde- tailedthemedicinalusesofplants),andinlandscapegardeningbooksand horticulturaltreatises.AccordingtoBlancheHenrey,between1500-1600,nineteenbotanicalillustratedbookswerepublishedinEngland;elevenwere herbáisandeightwereconcernedwithhorticulture.15Anexampleofahorti- culturalbookisWilliamLawson'sANewOrchardandGarden(1618,1623), adissertationonhowtogrowvariouskindsoftrees.ThetitlepageofLawson's bookcontainsasceneinwhichgardenersareintheprocessoftransplanting youngtrees;largeholeshavebeendugandtreescompletewithrootsawait theirnewhome.TheillustrationsinJohnEvelyn'sTheFrenchGardiner (1658)areframedwithwordsthatinstructthereaderinthelatesthorticul- turaltechniquesandcontainimagesofwomencookingthefruitsofsuch horticulturalendeavors.Inseventeenth-andearlyeighteenth-centurybooks ongardendesign,illustrationsoflayoutsofelaborateFrenchandDutchgar- denswerepopular,alongwithnurserymen'sseedcatalogueswhichcontained 270 / TOBIN picturesofflowersandfruitsaccordingtotheirseason.RobertFurber,a floristandseedsman,commissionedPieterCasteelstopaintflowersandfruits intheDutchmannerforhisseedcatalogues,TheTwelveMonthsofFlowers (1730)andTheTwelveMonthsofFruit(1732).Foreachofthetwelvemonths, thereisaprintcontaininganabundanceoffruitorflowers,gorgeouslycol- ored,beautifullysensuous,spillingoutoftheirbowlsandbaskets,andbe- neaththelusciousimageisachartwithallthenamesofthefruitsandflow- ersandnumberssothatacustomercaneasilyidentifytheplantsheorshe wantstoorder. Inadditiontoseedcatalogues,herbáis,andtreatisesonhorticulture,also popularwere,accordingtoJohnBrindleandJamesWhite,bookswith"seri- ousbotanicalcontent:plantsurveys...[and]florasofEuropean,Asian,and Americanregions."16Anexampleofabookcontainingillustrationsofplants fromanexoticlocalisMariaSibyllaMerian'sDissertationsurlaGenerationetlesTransformationsdesInsectesdeSurinam (1726).Whileherfo- cusistheinsectsofSurinam,Merian'semphasisontheinsects'lifecycleled hertoincorporateplantlifeintoherpictures.Thebrilliantlycoloredpicture, forinstance,ofthepepperplant,Capsicumannuum,containsacaterpillar creepingonastemoftheplant;ithasfedonayellowishpepper,exposingits seedstoourview.Thepupaformisattachedtoanimmaturegreenpepper, andabutterflyrestsonacurlingstem.Merian'sdrawingofthelifecycleof thisbutterflythatlivesinandaroundthepepperplantdemonstratesasensi- tivitytowhatwenowcalltheecosystem,thevariousandspecificrelation- shipsthatexistbetweenplantsandanimallife(fig.1).MarkCatesbyinhis NaturalHistoryofCarolina,FloridaandtheBahamaIslands(1730-47) alsoincludesanimalsinhispicturesofplants.His"SweetFloweringBay Tree"containsabird,"TheblewGrosbeak,"precariouslyperchedonatwig, stretchingitsneckup,andtwistingaroundtoreachasuspended,reddish, nut-likefruitfromthetree. Earlyeighteenth-centurybotanicalillustrationsusuallyconveyedmore thanadescriptionoftheleafandflowerofaparticularplant.WhileMerian's andCatesby'sillustrationsattempttocaptureaplant'secologicalrelations, otherartistsfocusedonplantsintheirhumancontext.Herbáis,likeEliza- bethBlackwell'sACuriousHerbal,Containing500cutsofthemostuseful plantswhicharenowusedinthepracticeofphysick(1737-39),contains informationonmedicinalusesofplants.Theillustrationofthetobaccoplant, whichshedrew,engraved,andhand-painted,containstheEnglishcommonnameaswellasalatinatename,andabreakdownoftheplant'sparts— flower,calix,seedvessel,andseed.Theaccompanyingtextrelatestheto- baccoleaf'sefficacyincuringulcers,piles,andtheKing'sevil(scrofula). ImperialDesigns:BotanicalIllustrationI271 Figure1.MariaSibyllaMerian,DissertationSurlaGenerationetLesTransforma- tionsdesInsects(1726).Capsicumannuum.CourtesyoftheRareBooksandManu- scriptsDivision,TheNewYorkPublicLibrary.Astor,LenoxandTildenFoun- dations. 272 / TOBIN Thisbookwasmeanttobeusedbythehousewife,theapothecary,andthe herbalist.MichaelBernardValenti'sHistoriaSimpliciumReformata(1716) describesnon-Europeanplantsandexplainsthevarioususesofthesenew, exoticitems.Hedepictsacoffeetreefullofcoffeeberriesgrowingina mountainousregion.Inthewhitespacesurroundingthedarkengravingof thetreethereisarabicwritingandinromancharacterstheword"Coffi." Thearabicconveystheethnicoriginoftheexoticplantanddrink,andthe accompanyingtexttellsthereaderhowtopreparethisTurkishtreat.Valenti's sensitivitytotheculturalsignificanceofplantsandtheirusescanbeseen alsointhetextaccompanyinghisillustrationofnutmegandmace,forhe includestheIndianandJavanaswellasEuropeannamesforthesespices.17 Valenti'saswellasBlackwell'srepresentationsofplantlife,likethoseof sixteenth-andseventeenth-centuryherbáis,arecloselyalliedtothestudyof medicineandstresstheusefulnessofplants.Theknowledgeofplantsthatis foundinherbáis,accordingtoLondaSchiebinger,is"localandparticular, derivedfromdirectexperiencewithplantsinagriculture,gardening,ormedicine ,orfromknowledgehandeddownbaseduponthatexperience."Bythe mid-eighteenthcentury,however,botaniststurnedfrom,asSchiebingersays, "medicalapplicationtomoregeneralandtheoreticalissuesofpuretaxonomy, asbotanistssoughtsimpleprinciplesthatwouldholduniversally."18 LinnaeanBotany Bythemid-eighteenthcenturyCarlvonLinné'staxonomicsystembegan toexertapowerfulinfluenceonBritishbotanyanditshandmaiden,botani- calillustration.InhishistoryofthereceptionofLinné'sSpeciesPlantarum (1753)inEngland,W.T.Stearnsuggeststhatthe"publicationofthefinest illustratedworkseverproduced"wasmadepossiblebybotany'spopularity withwealthyandinfluentialamateurs.19StearnarguesthatLinnaeanclassi- ficationdominatedBritishbotanyfromthe1760stotheearlynineteenth centurybecauseitwasembracedbyprofessionalandamateurbotanistsalike. Stearncitesacontemporaryobserver,RobertPulteney,whowrotein1790 thattheLinnaeansystem"hadgiventheauthorofitaliterarydominionover thevegetablekingdom;whichintherapidityofitsextension,andthestrength ofitsinfluence,hadnotperhapsbeenparalleledintheannalsofScience."20 PulteneyexplainshowLinné'sdoctrines"insinuatedthemselves"intothe mindsofBritishbotanists: Thesimplicityoftheclassicalcharactersasthebasis,theuniformityofthe genericalnotes,confinedwhollytothepartsoffructification,andthatpre- cisionwhichmarkedthespecificdistinctions,advantagesofwhichall ImperialDesigns:BotanicalIllustration/273 foregoingsystemsweredestitute,sooncommandedtheassentoftheun- prejudiced;andafteranintervalofafewyears,gaveLinnaeus'smethoda decidedsuperioritywithEnglishbotanists.21 Inhiseffortstoconstructasystematicbotany,Linnésearchedforasys- temthatwould,asJohnLeschobserves,"bringuniformity,consistency,and coherencetotherepresentationofaclearlydefineddomainofnaturalob- jects."22Linné'staxonomicsystemwascenteredonthepartsoftheflower,or...