Beyond Respectability: The Female World of Love and Crime in Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Philadelphia

BeyondRespectability:TheFemale WorldofLoveandCrimeinLate EighteenthandEarlyNineteenth CenturyPhiladelphia SUSANBRANSON Intheearlyspringof1822twowomenwerereleasedfromthePhiladel- phiaprison.Acoachmandrovethemfromboardinghousetoboarding- housethroughoutthecity.Thoughtheyhadsufficientmoneytorentaroom, theyweredeniedadmittanceeverywhere.Inthecoachman'sattempttofind lodgingforhispassengers,aboutwhomhegrewmoreandmorecurious,he tookthemtoabrothel.Thereagain,asthewomenalightedfromthecarriage, AnnCarsonwasrecognizedandsheandhercompanionwerecastigatedas "shedevils."Eventhemadamofahouseofprostitutionslammedthedoorin theirfaces.1 Twoyearslater,Carsonwasinaprisoncellwithtwoofherfellowcounterfeiters .ThethreewomenarguedovertheaffectionsofCharlesMitchell, anothercounterfeiter.JealousthatCarsonwastheobjectofMitchell'sattentions ,hercompanionspulledCarson'shair,pinnedherarms,andhither abouttheheadwithachair.Bloodiedandbruised,shewascarriedtothe prisoninfirmary.There,anotherfemalecounterfeiter,SarahMayland,had chargeoftheinmates.She,too,wasjealousofCarson.Seizingheropportu- nity,MaylandwrappedtheunconsciousCarsoninthetyphus-infestedblan- ketsofawomanwhohadjustdied.Carsonwasdeadthreedayslater. ThechainofeventsthatpropelledAnnBakerCarson(1785-1824)toward notorietyandanignobledeathintheCityofBrotherlyLoverevealsahidden worldoffemalecriminalsinlateeighteenth-andearlynineteenth-century 245 246/BRANSON America.Ourknowledgeisscarceconcerningthelivesofwomenwhoturned totheftandcounterfeitinginthisera.2ThelifeofCarson,awell-known bigamist,kidnapper,thief,andcounterfeiter,andconsequentlyoneofthe mostnotoriouswomenofhertime,offersusaglimpseintothiscriminal underworld.Inthisworld,anabsenceofpatriarchalguidelinesandconstraints amongcriminalsalteredoreliminatedfemaledependenceonmen.Instead, theprecariouslifeoffemalebandittifosteredmutualprotectionandeconomic interdependence. Atthesametime,muchofourknowledgeofCarson'sexperiences,andall ofourinformationregardinghermotivesandfeelings,comesdirectlyfromCarsonherself;herMemoirsisadeliberatelyfashioneddocumentintended toentertain,shock,gratify,andinstruct.Inthisregard,Carson'sMemoirs followsalongtraditionofthe"true-crime"story:narrativesrelatedbycriminalsthemselves ,usuallyastheypreparedtobeexecutedfortheircrimes.But Carson'saccountaddedanewelementtothiscenturies-oldtradition.Carson's "plot"weavestogetherthemesofduty,love,andbetrayal,typicalelements inpopularnineteenth-centurysentimentalfiction.Instructure,style,andcon- tent,Carson'sMemoirscloselyfollowstheprescriptionsofthisnewliterary genre,givinganewtwisttothetraditionofcrimenarrative.Inthisfascinat- ingcombinationofdramaticstoryandintriguingglimpsesintotheworldof femalecriminality,Memoirsstandsasanimportantdocumentofearlynine- teenth-centuryAmericansocietyandculture. Carson'sMemoirsisnotatransparentdocumentwhichcanbetakenat itsword.ThoughmuchofwhatCarsonrelatescanbeverifiedinlegal documentsandnewspaperaccounts,hernarrativeisaconsciouslywrought work,anditsoriginsandinfluencesmustbeconsidered.TheMemoirs resemblesothercriminalnarrativesoftheday.Andlikeothernarratives,the Memoirsisahighlyfashionedpieceofwriting,motivatedbyadesireto entertainanaudienceandmakeaprofit.Itisdifficulttoassesshowmuchof thememoirCarsonwroteherself:CarsonsoughtoutMaryClarke,a Philadelphiawidowwholivedbyherpen,toaddstyleandpolishtoher account.Clarkehadareputationforwritingupsensationaltrialcases, includingtheprosecutionofaPhiladelphiaCatholicpriestforsexualassault.3 ThecombinationofCarson,whodescribedherselfasanavidreaderofnovels, andClarke,withliteraryskillsandexperienceinwritingsensationalcrime accounts,producedatextwhichemployednovelisticdevicesandstyleswith whichreadersoffictionwerealreadyfamiliar.Italsosoughttocapitalizeon thegeneralpopulation'sinterestinreadingcriminalnarratives,agenrewith alonghistoryinBritain,whichwastransplantedtotheAmericancolonies andcontinuedahealthyexistenceinthenineteenthcentury. BeyondRespectability:TheFemaleWorldofLoveandCrimeI247 Eighteenth-centuryAmericanshadampleopportunitytoacquaintthem- selveswiththecriminalunderworld:aplethoraofpamphletsandbroadsides, depictingthelivesofchronicoffendersultimatelybroughttojusticeforbur- glaryorrobbery,werereadbyinhabitantsfromNewEnglandtoGeorgia. Mostofthesepublicdocumentswereautobiographiesorbiographiesofcrimi- nalsawaitingexecution.Thisliteraturewasintendedasawarningtoothers, butitsentertainmentvaluewasnotunderestimated,eitherbybooksellers andpeddlerswhosoldthesepieces,orbythecriminalsthemselves.Thomas Hellier'smisadventuresasanindenturedservantinseventeenth-centuryVir- giniafurnishedmaterialforoneoftheearliestAmericancrimenarratives: TheVainProdigalLife,andTragicalPenitentDeathofThomasHellier (London,1680).4HellierrelatedhisstorytoalocalAnglicanclergyman hoursbeforehisexecutionintheJamestownprison.Hellier'snarrative,as presentedbytheclergymanwhoactuallywroteandpublishedit,wasin- tendedasacautionarytaletootheryoungmen.Hellier'slying,cheating,and tipplingwithcompanionswererelatedinthenarrative,butwiththepurpose ofdemonstratinghownogoodcouldcomeofsuchbehavior.Bythefollow- ingcentury,presentationofcriminalexploitshadtakenonverydifferent motivations.RachelWall,executedinPennsylvaniain1789foravarietyof crimes,knewthat"theevercuriousPublic[was]anxioustoknowevery particularcircumstanceoftheLifeandCharacterofapersoninmyunhappy situation."Furthermore,sheintentionallyincludedinherLife,LastWords andDyingConfession(1789)anaccountofoneofhermoreinteresting "adventures"asshehopedtogratify"thecuriosityofsomeparticularfriends."5 Bythebeginningofthenineteenthcenturycrimenarrativeswereclearly intendedtoentertainaswellasinstructthereader.AnnCarsonwaswellawareofthiseagerreadership.Assheputit,"[Ihave]solongplayedthe heroine,fortheamusementofthepublic,gratis,itistimetheyshouldpaythe piper."6Thecontentofhernarrativewasdeliberatelypresentedtoattractthe attentionofabook-buyingpublic. BothAnnCarsonandMaryClarkecouldhavereadilyobtainedanumber ofthesebroadsidesandpamphlets,aswellasmoredetailedaccountsofcrimi- nalcareers.Theavailabilityofsuchliteratureprovidedtheopportunityforbothwomentobecomefamiliarwiththisgenre.Philadelphia,secondonlyto NewYorkCityasamajormetropolitancenter,supportednumerousbook- sellersandshops,aswellaslendinglibrarieswherecrimeliteraturewas available.7Onesuchnarrative,anaccountofthemultifariousexploitsof StephenBurroughs,waspublishedinPhiladelphiaonlyafewyearsbeforeCarsonconstructedherown.8AsaprecursortoCarson'stext,Burroughs narrativeisilluminating.Thestructure,tone,andvarietyofadventures,in- 248/BRANSON eludingparticipationinacounterfeitingring,inCarson'sMemoirsareremarkablysimilartoBurroughs '.Bothnarrativestookpainstoexplainthat theirsubjects'personalitiesputthematoddswithsocialconventionandle- galauthority;Burroughs"insistedthathisactionsweregroundedinprin- cipleorjustifiedbycircumstance."Carsonlaterexplainedheractivitiesina similarmanner.CarsonalsofollowedBurroughs'leadbyturningthetables onthelegalsystemanditsrepresentatives:Burroughs,"regularlychallenged themotivesofhispersecutorsandthefairnessofthelegalproceedingsun- dertakenagainsthim."9Carsondidlikewise.ThusCarsonhadarichbodyof crimenarrativestodrawonassheandMaryClarkeconstructedtheMem- oirs.Theycouldalsobesecureintheirexpectationsthatsalesofthebook wouldbebrisk. ContributingtotheappealofCarson'sMemoirswasitsrelianceonthe plotdevicesandrhetoricalstyleofpopularAmericanandBritishsentimen- talnovelsofthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcentury.10Memoirs' themesandprosestylearehighlyreminiscentofnovelsofthetime.11Carson tookupthethemesoffilialdutyandlovelessmarriage,truelovefoundatthe expenseofsocialcondemnation,conflict,drama,andultimately,betrayalat thehandsofalovedone. Carson'saccountofthecircumstanceswhichledtohermarriage,atthe ageoffifteen,tooneofherfather'sfellowofficers,CaptainJohnCarson, closelyfollowstheplotofseveralearlyAmericannovels.Filialduty,andthe emotionalconflictengenderedbydaughterlyobedience,isdepictedinCarson's narrativeassheexplainstothereaderthatthoughshelovedandwasloved byherchildhoodfriend,NatHutton,herfamily'sfinanciallossesinthelate 1790scompelledherparentstomarrytheirdaughterstomenwithgoodfi- nancialprospects.Nat,thoughthesonofawealthyshipbuilder,wastoo youngtotakeonawife.CarsondidnotlovetheCaptain,butsawnoalterna- tivebuttocomplywithherparents'wishes.Dutifuldaughterssacrificedfor thesakeofparentalwillwasastoryrecountedagainandagaininAmerican fiction.CathyDavidsonnotesthatalmosthalfofthesentimentalnovelswritten inAmericabefore1820employthemotifofprotagonistwholovesoneman, butisorderedbyherfathertomarryanother.12Twoofthemostpopular novelsinthisveinwereCharlesBrockdenBrown'sClaraHoward(1801) andtheanonymousTheHistoryofConstantiusandPulchera(1794).Both usethisplotdevicetofurthertheirstories.Readersapparentlyenjoyedsto- riesofthiskind,andauthorsacknowledgedthisattraction;twoothernovels, theanonymousTheUnfortunateLovers,andCruelParents(1797),and DanielJackson'sAlonzoandMelissa:Or,TheUnfeelingFather:AnAmeri- canTale(Philadelphia1811),explicitlyadvertisedthisthemeasthenovel's subject.13AnnCarsonwaswellawarethatherlife,insentimentalform,was BeyondRespectability:TheFemaleWorldofLoveandCrimeI249 anappealingread.Sheexplicitlydrewherreaders'attentiontoherMem- oirs'similaritytothispopularnovelisticscenario.Carsonconsciouslycom- paredherselftoRousseau'scharacterinJulieouLaNouvelleHéloïse(1760) whosesituationissimilartoherown.LikeRousseau,Carsoncondemned parentaltyrannyoverchildren,andagreedwithhisadmonitionthatmenandwomenshouldbeallowedtoconsulttheirownaffections.Thiswasespe- ciallyanissueinCarson'scase. DespitethefactthatCarson'sparentshadraisedhertoexpectfreedom andindependence,shewasforcedintoamarriageinwhichtraditionalvir- tues,andlittleindependence,wereexpectedofher.TheidealsoftheAmericanRevolutionledmanywomentoseekmoreequitablerolesineconomic , marital,andpoliticalaffairs.14Carson'sparents,particularlyherfather(who hadservedintheRevolution),hadfosteredinhisdaughterapoliticaland patrioticidentity;therhetoricoflife,libertyandpursuitofhappinesssur- roundedtheadolescentgirl.Asaconsequenceofparentalinfluenceandideas permeatinglateeighteenthcenturyAmericansociety,Carsonacknowledged thatfromearlyinheryouthsheacquired"ideasalmostmasculine."15Among theseideaswerethenotionsofcompanionatemarriageandgreaterequality betweenhusbandsandwives.16Thenaturalrightsphilosophyofcitizenship andgovernmentalsoinfluencedpersonalrelationshipsandgenderrelation- ships.AbigailAdamsarticulatedthisdesireforwomentohavealargershare indomesticruleinalettertoherhusbandin1776: DonotputsuchunlimitedpowerintothehandsoftheHusbands.Remem- berallmenwouldbetyrantsiftheycould.Ifparticularcareandattention isnotpaidtotheLadieswearedeterminedtofomentaRebellion,andwill notholdourselvesboundbyanylawsinwhichwehavenovoice,orRep- resentation...suchofyouaswishtobehappywillinglygiveuptheharsh titleofMasterforthemoretenderandendearingoneofFriend.17 LikeAdams,AnnCarsonexpected"thetenderaffectionthatoughttobe thebasisofallmatrimonialengagements."18Circumstances,unfortunately, dictatedotherwise.Likethefictionalheroinesoftheday,Carsonbeganher marriedlifetiedtoamanshedidnotlove. Carson'sdepictionofhermarriagetoCaptainCarsonsuggestsanother themefromsentimentalfiction:theunhappyfateoflong-sufferingwives.Insentimentalfictionwomenoftenpatientlysufferabuseofvariouskinds:pov- erty,unfaithfulness,emotionalabuse,orevenphysicalviolence.HelenaWells, ConstantiaNeville:or,TheWestIndian(1800),andS.S.B.K.Wood, Amelia;or,TheInfluenceofVirtue(1802),forexample,portraywomenwhosehusbandsarefaithless.InSukeyVickery'sEmilyHamilton(1803), Mrs.Henderson,"isbroughttothevergeofdeathbyaviolent,alcoholic, 250/BRANSON profligate,andemotionallyabusivehusband."19Inothernovels,likeWilliamHillBrown 's,ThePowerofSympathy(1789),SusannaRowson'sChar- lotteTemple(1791),andHannahWebsterFoster's,TheCoquette(1797), badchoicesaboutmenultimatelyleadtothewomen'sdemise.20AnnCarson usedthispopulartheme,butgaveitanewtwist:CaptainCarsondesireda traditionalmaritalrelationshipinwhichhisspouserecognizedhisauthority. Ratherthansubmittohiswishes,Carsonopposedthem.Shecarriedthedu- tifuldaughterthemeonlysofar;herRevolutionaryupbringinghadtaught herthatshewasCaptainCarson'sequal,andsherefusedtocomplywithhis "Turkishbashaw"behavior.Strong-willed,independent,andstubborn,she articulatedthismaritalconflictintermsofrepublicanism:"IwasanAmerican ;alandoflibertyhadgivenmebirth;myfatherhadbeenhiscommand- ingofficer;Ifeltmyselfhisequal,andprideinterdictedmysubmittingtohis caprices."21Perfectlyawareofheraudienceasshedescribedthissituation, Carsondeclaredtoherreaders:"naturedidnotcreatemeforanonentity,soIbecameaheroine,andbravelybiddefiancetoCaptainCarson'sauthor-ity."22Carson'sexpectationsandassertionsofindependencewerediscussedless andlessfrequentlyinthenineteenth-centurysocietyaroundher.Anewar- ticulationofmaleandfemaleroles,theconceptofseparatespheres,was takinghold.Thisideologydelineatedwomen'ssphereasthehome,children. Womenhadamoralauthoritywithinthefamilysetting,buttheywereexpectedtorelinquishthepublicworldtotheirhusband .Genderroleswere definedintermsofdifferenceratherthanequality.AnnCarson'sexpecta- tions,nourishedonthepost-Revolutionaryrhetoricofequalityandalarger shareinbothpublicandprivateresponsibilitiesforwomenattheendofthe eighteenthcentury,violentlyconflictedwiththesenineteenth-centurypre- cepts.23 HeridealsputCarsonatoddswithcontemporarysocialmoresingeneral andwithCaptainCarson'sdesiresinparticular.Herhusband'spersonalfail- ings,however,pavedthewayforAnnCarsontoassertherindependenceand seekadegreeofpersonalhappiness.CaptainCarsonprovidedneitherthe egalitarianrelationshiphiswifeexpectednorthedomesticsettingmostmiddle- classPhiladelphiansenjoyed.AnnCarsonsoondiscoveredtheCaptainwas analcoholic,andforseveralyearsoftheirmarriagehisinabilitytowork madetheireconomicsituationunstable.AtCarson'sinsistence,hefinally sailedofftotheEastIndiesin1812.Carsonsoldtheirfurniture,openeda chinashopwithstocktheCaptainhadpreviouslybroughtback,andfrom thenonsheconsidered,"Independence[asher]Idol."24Thisactivitymarked aturningpointinAnnCarson'slife:shehaddivorcedherselffrommale authorityandeconomicdependence.Carsonrejoicedthatshehadbecome, BeyondRespectability:TheFemaleWorldofLoveandCrimeI251 "ausefulandactivememberofsociety;Ilaydownwitheaseandarosebutto becontentandhappy."25 ButCarson'sstolenmomentsoffreedominherhusband'sabsence,an absencesoextendedthatshepresumedhimdead,contributedtothedesperate dramawhichCarson'snarrativepresentedtoitsreaders.Carsonenjoyedher independence:hershopprosperedandsheengagedinseveraldiscreetlove affairs.In1816,believingCaptainCarsondead(shehadnotheardfromhim inthreeyears)shemarriedRichardSmith,ahandsomeandpennilessyoung Irishmanwhomshesupported.26ButtheCaptainwasaliveandwell.He returnedtoPhiladelphia,toclaimhiswifeandherchinashopashisown,a fewmonthsafterthemarriage.27 Beforeanylegalactioncouldbetakenbyanyofthepartiesconcerned, RichardSmithshotandkilledCaptainCarson.Smithwasconvictedofmur- derandsentencedtodie.AnnCarsonwastriedasanaccessorytomurder, butquicklyacquitted.AlthoughthereweremitigatingcircumstancesinSmith's situation,theGovernorofPennsylvaniarefusedtograntapardon.ItwasatthisjuncturethatAnnCarsonacquaintedherselfwith"thefra- ternityofdesperadoes,whokeepcivilizedsocietyinbodilyfearforeither lifeorproperty."28Carsonschemedtokidnapthegovernorandforcehimto releasehercondemnedlover.Nottrustinghiredcriminalstocarryouther instructions,Carsonaccompaniedthem,ridingthroughthePennsylvaniacoun- trysidewithfourarmed,and,asittranspired,dangerousaccomplices.29But herplanwasdiscovered;Carsonandhermenwereapprehendedasthey nearedthevicinityofthegovernor'sresidence.RichardSmith'sexecution proceededasscheduled,butnotbeforethepublicationofhisgallows-side Confession,inwhichheblamedAnnCarsonforhisfate. BetrayalisanotherthemeinCarson'sstory.SmithpublishedhisConfes- sionshortlybeforehisexecutiononAugust10,1816.Herepudiatedhis associationwithCarson,anddescribedherasthecauseofhismisery: Iwillnotdescribetheartsandintrigueswhichwerepracticedtoinduce metotakethisevilwomantomybosom,awomanwhoisversedinallthe wilesandmachinationsofthatdiabolicalspiritwhichpossessedtheheart ofthefirstofherrace,andcausedthefallofmankind.30 Carsonriskedherfreedom,herfinances,andherreputationinadesperate attempttofreethemansheloved.Herrewardwashiscallousrenunciation ofan"evil"woman.Carsonwastriedforthekidnappingattempt,butacquit- tedonthegroundsthattherewasinsufficientevidenceofherwrongdoing. Thejudgeinthecasecautioned,however,that,thoughproveninnocent...